To answer this question a single case study with mixed methods was performed. The study compares host and visiting students’ learning experiences and their perceived development of soft skills following a BIP as an empirical event. The learning design included a variety of experiential learning activities, some of which comply with the definition of non-placement WIL. A transformative approach to learning was applied (Mezirow, 1997), including student reflections both during the course and in the final assessment. The data consists of mainly qualitative and some quantitative data. The article is organised as follows: First, the theoretical foundation, then, the case description, the research methods, results and discussion. Finally, a conclusion.

Research finds that participation in BIP helps students develop professional and transversal skills demanded by employers, and that BIP can promote sustainable and inclusive practices and intercultural competence (Frank & Hogendoorn-Schweighofer, 2026; Jager, 2025). In the European context, soft skills are commonly understood as intangible social, personal, emotional and cognitive skills, attitudes or behaviours. They are transferable to different contexts and practices and are associated with increased employability (Cinque, 2016). They are often referred to as 21^st century skills, which according to Blinkley et al. (2012) largely pertain to 4 areas; ways of thinking (creativity and innovation, critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, learning to learn, metacognition), ways of working (communication, collaboration), tools for working (information literacy, ICT literacy), and living in the world (global and local citizenship, life and career skills, personal and social responsibility, cultural awareness and cultural competence). Similar soft skills are identified as desired learning outcomes from WIL activities, as presented by McRae et al., (2019):

Another useful framework is presented in the Inner Development Goals (IDG) initiative (Inner Development Goals, 2025), which is a research-based framework defining the necessary skills to progress towards the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (United Nations, 2015). The IDG framework currently identifies 25 soft skills within the dimensions being, thinking, relating, collaborating and acting: Table 2:

The Inner Development Goals framework (Inner Development Goals, 2025)

Research demonstrates that participating in international mobility programmes promotes the development of many soft skills which match the IDG framework, including intercultural understanding, empathy, self-awareness, critical thinking, confidence, adaptability, perspective-taking, problem-solving, curiosity and resilience, an interest global issues and in pursuing a global career (Cushing et al., 2019; Nada & Legutko, 2022; Cvitan et al., 2024). The IDG framework will be used as an analytical frame when identifying the soft skills described by the participants in this study.

Billett (2024) distinguishes between work-integrated education (WIE), which is the provision of experiences and educational interventions, and work-integrated learning (WIL), which constitutes the individual student’s actual learning process. To achieve the desired learning outcomes, students should be assisted to integrate practical experiences with educational goals, to challenge their existing knowledge, and to develop their skills. In this article, an effective learning design is understood as a successful integration of WIE and WIL. It provides both WIL and non-WIL activities, combining a variety of educational experiences which are both academic, professional, social and cultural. In accordance with CEWIL Canada’s framework of experience-based learning in figure 1 below, these are defined as non-placement WIL experiences, curricular, problem-based experiences and extra-curricular, student-driven experiences. The broad approach is intended to utilize the diversity of actors (students, teachers, industry professionals), cultures (in the host country and of the various participants) and experiences (social, academic, cultural) that are available in BIP.

Billett’s (2024) understanding of learning is closely related to the concept of transformative learning (Mezirow, 1997; Mezirow & Taylor, 2011). Transformative learning takes place when students are challenged through real-world experiences, become aware of their existing assumptions, beliefs and value judgments, critically reflect on these through self-examination, and take on board the perspectives of others. This process leads to a change in the students’ world view and is triggered by an experience that challenges their long-held beliefs, a so-called “disorienting dilemma” (Mezirow & Taylor, 2011, p. 19). Since dealing with disorienting dilemmas usually involves discomfort, teachers should support students by creating an open learning environment, avoid imposing their own views and permit students to interact on equal terms. Learning activities are “learner-centered, participatory and interactive”, involve “group deliberation and group problem solving” and “reflect the real-life experiences of the students” (Mezirow, 1997, p. 10). A transformative learning design, which may include both WIL and non-WIL activities, has been found to influence students’ career plans, the development of their life-long learning habits, and their soft skills (Purg et al., 2018; Nada & Legutko, 2022). As Cushing et al. (2019) point out, transformative learning often takes place outside of the classroom, and often during activities that are beyond the teachers’ control, such as student-initiated social events. Consequently, a BIP which includes experiential learning activities that are both WIL, non-WIL and extra-curricular is likely to provide a variety of contexts for real-world experiences which promote the development of desired soft skills and employability.

In international mobility programmes, a trigger for transformative learning is cultural immersion, which means to engage deeply and actively with a new culture (Chwialkowska, 2020). Cultural immersion has the potential to provide the students with disorienting dilemmas, or novel experiences which challenge their existing world view and force them to examine and potentially alter their assumptions, beliefs and value judgements (Oghenebruphiyo, 2020). A BIP includes both host students and visiting students. While visiting students experience internationalisation through “cross-border education”, the host students experience “internationalisation at home” (Erdei & Káplár-Kodácsy, 2020, p. 8). While Erasmus+ encourages a culturally immersive learning design where participants work in transnational and transdisciplinary teams (European Commission, 2025) it says little about how to manage the different internationalisation contexts of host and visiting students. Cultural distance between home and host country triggers curiosity (Asoodar et al., 2017), and it is to be expected that visiting students have a more culturally immersive experience than host students. On the other hand, the natural diversity of the BIP group is an advantage and has potential to encourage culturally immersive experiences also for the host students. According to Perfölz and López-Varela (2022), students who participate in short-term mobilities at their home institution can be highly motivated by the international learning and foreign language opportunities offered in the course itself and through the interaction with the visiting participants. Hepple et al.’s (2017) study of a short-term, work-integrated learning mobility between Australian and Malaysian pre-service teachers provides a good example of how cultural immersion may be facilitated by actively involving the host students as “buddies” who accompanied the visiting students on school visits and introduced them to Malaysian culture. Regardless of student role, it is essential that both visiting and host students are prepared for cultural differences and are guided actively in the learning process. Research shows that students who are unaware of potential cultural differences and are not supported through guided reflection, may have their negative stereotypes confirmed rather than contradicted (Hepple et al., 2017; Asoodar et al., 2017).

The short and intensive format of BIP, which typically applies interactive, multicultural teamwork and a focused atmosphere, has been positively associated with the development of soft skills such as intercultural awareness, cultural sensitivity, teamwork, problem-solving, and digital competencies (Prada et al., 2025). In longer-term programmes, usually not designed specifically to encourage cultural integration, students have been found to stick to their own in-group rather than mixing with local students (Chwialkowska, 2020). However, the brevity of the BIP can also be a challenge for intercultural learning, because there is less time for in-depth exploration. In longer-term programmes students are also more likely to experience intercultural challenges. These could be useful as triggers for transformative learning, especially if the students are encouraged to reflect on these experiences. As Lysgaard (1955, p. 50) demonstrates, the first meeting with a new culture is typically characterised by a “honeymoon” feeling of overwhelming positivity, “gratified by the adventure of being abroad”, while the challenges of adapting to a new culture normally occur in later stages. Short-term mobilities may also especially encourage transformative learning because they are organised by actively engaged teachers who typically include real-world and WIL experiences (Cushing et al., 2019; Perry et al., 2012). This format allows the collaborating teacher team to support the students’ learning actively, in accordance with transformative learning theory. While increased efforts are required in terms of the planning and coordination of such “tandem teaching”, a culturally and academically diverse teacher team has been found to enhance BIP students’ learning outcomes (Perfölz & López-Varela, 2022, p.7; Jager, 2025)

25 soft skills were identified and labelled through thematic coding of the reflective reports, and categorised using the five IDG dimensions: Table 4:

Soft skills identified in reflective reports.

The most frequent skills identified were critical thinking, perspective skills, inclusivity, self-scrutiny, cultural literacy, appreciation for diversity and open-mindedness. When describing their development of the soft skills, students particularly emphasised activities which had challenged them, put them out of their comfort zone or made them question their previous assumptions or attitudes, characteristics which indicate transformative learning experiences (Mezirow, 1997). This is illustrated in table 5: Table 5:

Soft skill development in challenge-based and social activities. (Author’s elaboration based on thematic analysis)

Although both groups reported development of the identified soft skills, the visiting students typically gave more examples and described more experiences as profoundly transformative than the host students. They also particularly emphasised the novelty of experiencing Norway and Norwegians as a trigger for their transformation. As two visiting students wrote:

This experience has profoundly transformed me. From the diverse range of topics covered, as well as the distinct character of the country itself and the warm (in a typically Norwegian manner) reception from the students. (V2)

Throughout the week, the point of view I had before has dramatically evolved. The main reason is directly related to the possibility of meeting native Norwegians. Meetings arranged through the programme, and encounters with students on our own to have dinner or hang out in pubs have facilitated a deep approach to the patterns and ways of living of Norwegians. (V3)

In their descriptions, the visiting students also used a more enthusiastic language than the host students, for example describing the BIP as “incredibly enriching” (V6), “a week of self-discovery” (V2), “tremendous” (V13), or “amazing” (V4). Host students were typically less excited but also described having challenged themselves and developed their soft skills. This was mostly associated with the opportunity to engage with the international students. A host student wrote:

The opportunity to work in small groups and engage with individuals from different cultural backgrounds makes ground for the development of better communication and adaptability. And I think these qualities are highly valued and beneficial for both my life and future career. (H18)

In general, the visiting students said they felt welcomed by the Norwegian host students, but some noted that they could have been more engaged if they had been made to assume a greater responsibility:

A few of the host students from Kristiania could have been more supportive or involved when grouping up with visiting students. My recommendation is to train host students to be more committed to group work. (V4)

The survey questions measured the students’ perceived improvement of a range of pre-defined soft skills, their perception of increased employability, and their general satisfaction and motivation. Between 86% and 100% of the respondents were either very satisfied or rather satisfied with the quality of teaching and learning, academic content, cultural attractions, contact with industry, learning support and organisation. The soft skills identified in the survey (displayed in figure 2) largely matched the soft skills described in the reflective reports and served both to corroborate and nuance these findings. A slightly higher percentage of visiting students than host students felt they had developed their soft skills, with only two exceptions: 90% of host students reported improvement in English skills to only 33% of visiting students. Also, a slightly higher percentage of host students (39%) felt they had improved their analytical skills than the visiting students (33%). The highest scores were found on critical thinking (100% visiting; 87% host) and cultural adaptivity (100% visiting; 78% host). Surprisingly, few students reported development of empathy (3% for both groups), while many mentioned having developed empathy in their reflective reports. When asked to elaborate on their motivation for joining BIP, the visiting students emphasised an interest in Norway, a desire to challenge themselves, improve skills and knowledge, travel and meet new people and a general interest in the BIP topics. Some host students said that they were motivated by the opportunity to develop their intercultural skills and engage with industry professionals. Others simply stated that participation in the BIP was compulsory for them.

The visiting students also reported a higher perceived increase in employability than the host students and a considerably higher probability that they would seek work internationally as a result of participating in the BIP, as illustrated in figure 3. Several visiting students also expanded on this in the comment sections, stating that the programme had made them want to integrate diversity in teams and workplaces and think about sustainability in work processes.

Five themes emerged from the analysis as important for the effectiveness of the learning design: Student role, variation, cultural immersion, real-world experiences and time.

The 25 soft skills identified from the reflective reports matched the five dimensions of the IDG framework (being, thinking, relating, collaborating, acting). The students associated the development of their soft skills with learning activities that challenged them, put them out of their comfort zone and made them question their existing assumptions and attitudes. This confirms that challenge-based, transformative learning designs are effective for developing desired soft skills in BIP, in accordance with international mobility research (e.g. Nada & Legutko, 2022; Chwialkowska, 2020; Oghenebruphiyo, 2020). The skills that were most frequently described by students pertained to the first four IDG dimensions: self-scrutiny and open-mindedness (being), critical thinking and perspective skills (thinking), appreciation for diversity (relating), inclusivity and cultural literacy (collaborating). These soft skills are also associated with increased employability, which is a goal of BIP (European Commission, 2025). Acting skills (for example problem-solving) were also identified by many students, but were not mentioned as often as the personal, interpersonal, communicative and cognitive skills. The skills identified also matched three of the 21^st century skills categories: ways of thinking, ways of working and living in the world (Blinkley et al., 2012), which include critical thinking and problem solving, communication and collaboration, life and career skills, cultural awareness and cultural competence. These skills are also desired by Erasmus+ (European Commission, 2025, p. 43). However, students did not report having developed skills pertaining to Blinkley’s fourth category, tools for working, which comprise digital and media literacy skills (also desired by Erasmus+). This is natural considering the BIP did not focus on building digital skills and did not include professional training. The skills identified also fit into three of the categories in the Waterloo Future-Ready Talent Framework (McRae et al., 2019); develop self (e.g. self-assessment, self-management), build relationships (e.g. communication, collaboration, cross-cultural agility), and design & deliver solutions (e.g. critical thinking, innovation mindset).

The learning design’s ability to offer transformative internationalisation experiences to both visiting and host students was crucial for their learning outcomes. Even if both groups reported good-quality learning outcomes, the survey results demonstrated that visiting students perceived to have developed more soft skills than the host students, and that a larger proportion of the visiting students perceived an increase in employability and the motivation to seek work internationally. As both Erasmus impact studies and research demonstrate, students who experience cross-border internationalisation perceive a higher increased employability and soft skill development than students who experience internationalisation at home (European Commission, 2014; Engel, 2010; Nada & Legutko, 2022). However, even though a higher proportion of visiting students reported this improvement, the host students’ scores were also significant, indicating a very good learning outcome for this group too. For example, 87% of host students reported improvement in critical thinking and 78% in intercultural communication skills while 100% of the visiting students felt they had developed the same skills. 39% of host students also reported improvement in perceived employability, compared to 56% of visiting students. Only when evaluating their improvement of English skills did the host students score considerably higher than the visiting students (90% host students; 33% visiting students). Improvement of foreign language skills has also previously been identified as a key take-away for non-mobile students in short-term, blended mobilities (Perfölz & López-Varela, 2022). The lack of improvement reported by the visiting students may be explained by them already having a high language proficiency, which some of them also commented.

Most of the students (85% of host students and 100% of visiting students) were very or rather satisfied with the learning activities, which is an indication of an effective learning design. The learning activities were designed in accordance with transformative learning theory (Mezirow, 1997), including participative, problem-based activities both in the virtual session, in the classroom sessions and during WIL activities (field trips and contact with industry). In accordance with Erasmus+ recommendations, students also worked in transdisciplinary and multicultural teams. They were encouraged to engage actively with each other and critically reflect on their experiences both in discussions, in group projects and during excursions. The writing of the individual reflective report, submitted 1-2 weeks after the BIP, was also part of the learning design intended to develop critical reflection skills and self-awareness. The qualitative analysis of the reflective reports identified five factors in the learning design with implications for learning: Student role, variation, cultural immersion, real-world experiences and time.