Issues within the social work profession are greatly influenced by the contexts in which they are located as well as the wider community. This also point to how social work qualifying education is a conflicted policy area (Joubert, 2021). Both internationally and in Norway there is a need for closer cooperation between professional social work education programs and the practice field to educate candidates that better respond to the need for work-related skills (Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research 2017; 2019; 2021; 2024). When it comes to developing professional identity, social work students struggle to relate to the concept (Smith et al., 2022). The concept of professional identity is both difficult to understand, and students struggle to develop their own professional identity. The concept of professional identity is defined as the professional’s sense of belonging to a particular profession and the professional’s sense of responsibility towards the profession and society (Eriksen, 2024). There is research showing that students in higher education in Norway struggle with learning from academic texts, try to find easier ways of finding knowledge (Lystad, 2025). Exploring student agency is of high relevance as students in social work education must be motivated to learn and to develop a professional identity. The agency concept in this text focuses on students’ motivation for learning and positioning in learning situations (Eriksen & Gradovski, 2022; Eriksen, 2024). To develop agency is especially important for students when learning processes become frustrating and difficult. Another important aspect of students’ learning is to develop abilities in critical thinking both as students and in their future profession. Critical thinking is described as an interactional, active and relational process. This process that engages learners with socio-cultural aspects that together make up professional agency, socially responsible and action-oriented professionals (Trede & Jackson, 2021). The epistemological premises of learning according to Billett (2025) are individuals’ moment-by-moment meaningmaking (i.e., microgenesis) based upon their ontogenesis (i.e., development across the individuals’ life course). That is shaped of what they know, can do, and value. In addition, there is the provision of experiences intended to achieve institutional goals. The process of this integration is central in developing professional agency (Trede & Jackson, 2021).

In the social work context (Van Vliet et al., 2025), professionalism has two central contradictions, firstly on regulation and authenticity and secondly tensions around expertise. This is based on the high levels of uncertainty embedded in the social work profession, which both social workers and social work lectures must handle (Van Vliet et al., 2025). To learn how to deal with professional uncertainty, students’ agency is essential. Having agency can imply that students do not give up when learning becomes frustrating and difficult (Matusov et al., 2016). In addition, providing them with learning opportunities of theoretical knowledge and through authentic work experience is necessary to achieve satisfying professional development. Further, Work-integrated learning (WIL) can support students’ agency by providing authentic learning experiences. WIL encompasses reflection, embedded in intentional learning activities where theoretical knowledge is applied in practice settings (Lundh Snis et al., 2025). On a more general level in higher education, there is a call for research of WIL pedagogy that affords development of employability skills and strengthens student’s agency (Van Vliet et al., 2025).

The bachelor program in social work in Norway is both a practice-oriented professional education and an academic discipline, encompassing practical application, education, and research, with the interplay between theory and practice at its core (Halås, 2022). There is a well-known dichotomy between practice and theory within social work education, but these two elements should be seen as mutually complementary (Levin, 2021). The process of learning and developing professional knowledge involves more than students acquiring insights from various disciplines such as psychology, sociology, and law; it requires integrating these perspectives into a coherent whole (Halås, 2022). However, studies indicate that social work students experience that their studies do not adequately prepare them for what awaits them in practice field (Tham & Lynch, 2019; Voll et al., 2022). This is problematic as, educating reflexive, socially responsible and action-oriented future professionals who can contribute to innovation in practice, is a responsibility of higher education (Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research 2023–2024). More studies pinpoint a need for more knowledge about social work students` readiness for practice (Bruno & Dell’Aversana, 2018; Joubert, 2021).

The demand for more student-active learning forms is relevant in a professional context, and a motivation for further development of work-integrated education- and learning (WIE and WIL). That is both in general (Thon et al., 2024), and in social work (Folkman et al., 2025a, b). Work-integrated education (WIE) is about organising learning activities in higher education in a way that meets the requirements for professional qualifications and are based on integrating theory and practice through authentic work tasks. WIE and WIL are related to each other but are based on different approaches to knowledge production (Billett, 2024). There is a major difference between conceptually and procedurally experiences to achieve intended goals, which is an institutional factor (WIE), compared to the personal factor of learning in everyday interactions and activities (WIL) (Billett, 2024). Educational quality is built on academic teaching (Lundh Snis et al., 2025). An overarching goal of higher education is to accommodate work-life relevance of education. This involves assessments of the design and implementation of curricula, and the selection of specific pedagogical practices that help students integrate experiences from practice. Such structured choices are essential to WIE, which enables students’ WIL. WIL is based on the epistemology of “learning from experience” in which reflections and the student`s role as an active learner has a fundamental function. The learning outcomes of students` training experiences in the practice field should preferably be connected to the development of a professional identity. However, promoting WIL can both collide with a university culture anchored in traditional educational models, and challenge the established mindset about the relationship between students and teachers. Methodological issues of teaching and learning need to be developed and implemented to promote deep learning and autonomy in students (Bruno & Dell’Aversana, 2018; Ferns et al., 2025). The constructivist philosophy of learning in WIL focuses on the learner and his or her continuous construction of understanding (Fenton, 2025). Student activity in WIL is based on engagement and participation in discussions and activities that are important to the community (Bruno & Dell’Aversana, 2018). Studies underline the need of more knowledge about authentic learning experiences which encompasses the development of students’ professional identity through WIL (Trede & Jackson, 2021).

WIL is described as a strategic approach to equip students with required capabilities for a long working life (Billett, 2024). There are four key components of WIL qualities; authentic workplace experience, curricula integration, teaching skills that promote employability and reflection (Fenton, 2025). WIL is aiming to strengthen students’ employability and fostering professional identity (Jackson, 2015). A core in WIL is inclusion of authentic learning experiences which encompasses the development of students’ professional identity. The process of developing a professional identity as a social worker is complex (Smith et al., 2022), and it involves integrating theoretical knowledge, practical approaches and skills, as well as values of both professional and personal kinds (Smith et al., 2022; Wiles, 2013; Wheeler, 2017). WIL include three parts: students, education and practice (Billett, 2024). The concept of students’ agency in WIL is linked to descriptions of students’ individual development, which involve students learning and the capacity to take decisions toward core objects of the profession while immersed in problematic or uncertain environments (Garraway & Friedrich-Nel, 2025). Student agency is an important prerequisite for productive WIL experiences. Agency is also described as both an aspect and a skill when it comes to employability (Trede & Jackson, 2021).

The overall purpose of Norwegian social work education is to train qualified professionals who can assist individuals, families, or groups in preventing, reducing, and coping with social and health problems (Regulations on national guidelines for social work education, 2019). International Federation of Social Workers (2019) describe that international policy development and political analysis, as well as advocacy and political interventions, are considered part of social work practice. A social worker is expected to be a confident and competent expert who determines clinical interventions, while also remaining in a state of constant learning, humility, and viewing the client-as-expert (Regulation on the National Curriculum for Social Work Education, 2019; Van Vliet et al., 2025). This representation can be seen as an expression of idealization (Van Vliet et al., 2025).

In this article the following will be reviewed: How can WIE and WIL support student agency for professionalism for students in Norwegian social work education?

A narrative synthesis of literature uses an interpretative lens through theory to inform the literature analysis (Sukhera, 2022). The choice to conduct a narrative review was based on the intention of reaching beyond a systematic review, but also to bring in the practice perspective from the university authors lecturers in social work education programs and work-integrated learning research. Narrative reviews do not aim to be inclusive of all literature, but addressing the phenomenon influenced by the authors’ different interests and search for literature. Therefore, inclusion and exclusion criteria were subject of discussion among the authors during the search and identification process of relevant literature.

In this study theories of WIL and the concept of student agency (Matusov et al., 2016; Trede & Jackson, 2021, Billett, 2024) are used. The WIL research field is rapidly expanding and a lack of definitions in often cited articles can provide a challenge for researchers (Areskoug Josefsson et al., 2024; Areskoug Josefsson et al., 2025). The researchers’ and authors’ backgrounds as teachers and researchers in higher education for social work and WIL influenced both the choice of research focus, the theoretical framework and the studies analysed. The interpretative process of narrative reviews combines the research group’s theoretical premise with the selected theories to enable a synthesis of the included literature.

The narrative review underwent the steps recommended by Sukhera (2022). The process started with the research group establishing their interpretative theoretical position and pre-understanding of the theories. Thereafter a non-comprehensive literature search was conducted to capture and identify dominant themes. This literature search process was conducted separately by the authors to get an overview of the variety of pre-understanding of the themes of the research question. The databases primarily searched in were Scopus and Academic Search Premier using search words combining social work education, student agency, work-integrated education and work-integrated learning (in both English and Norwegian). The intention was to find scientific peer-reviewed publications responding to the research question, and to provide a knowledge synthesis, but the searches were conducted in non-systematic ways (Sukhera, 2022). From these searches and reading of preliminary findings, the search process continued by manually checking reference lists and finding additional literature of interest. Literature of interest was screened by abstract, and if considered relevant read in full-text. This was a continuous reading process, which led to 45 publications being included in the preliminary reflections in the analysis process. Thereafter literature and preliminary reflections were shared in the research group. In this step drafts of the manuscripts were used as a base for discussion and further development of the narrative analysis. This was an iterative process, which was ongoing until the research group reached a consensus of the findings shed light on the research question (Sukhera, 2022). The final number of included publications in the analysis was 36.

The research group brought in several perspectives and complementing competencies that influenced interpretation and narrative analysis. The research group consisted of the first and last author, who is sociologist and researcher, with experience in co-production and leadership in various services and in higher education, and a senior researcher in work-integrated learning with experience from co-production research in social work contexts. The third author is a social worker with extensive experience in teaching in social work education, and the second is an associate professor, with main interests including social work education, supervision, ethical and intercultural aspects of social work practice.

Reflexivity in the analytical process encompassed methodological reflections as well as contextual and professional reflections, where the research groups pre-understanding was seen as an asset. The reflection process of the data and the analysis was conducted both individually and in online and physical meetings among the researchers throughout the research process. This process was iterative as the researcher process included learning together of both the concept being studied and the personal, interpersonal, methodological and contextual factors which influenced the researchers’ understandings. This learning process followed suggestions for reflexivity in qualitative research (Olmos-Vega et al., 2023).

How can WIE and WIL support student agency for professionalism for students in Norwegian social work education?

The findings and discussion in the next section are presented in the following themes: 1) Student agency in social work education, 2) Social work students are insufficiently prepared for practice and 3) Collaboration between education and practice to improve students’ preparedness for practice.

A complex and turbulent political landscape forms a background, where both the education and social work students strive to become ready for practice and to practice (Joubert, 2021; Eriksen, 2024). Supporting this shift is an important but challenging task for the social work university lectures. The challenge lies not only in a pedagogical shift, but also in the way students’ learning is assessed.

Professional identity should strengthen a sense of purpose. It becomes a lens to be used to make sense of experiences and practice (Bruno & Dell’Aversana, 2018). Joubert (2021) underlines how an understanding of organizational culture and organizational life can enable a better understanding of oneself in a profession`s culture, and by the professional community (Joubert, 2021). The affective demands of professionalism shape and are shaped by encounters with uncertainty. Van Vliet et al. (2025) underline the importance of social work training that encourage social workers to perform a level of certainty and competence, and the ways uncertainty is structured into professional practice. Bruno & Dell’Aversana (2018) present WIL devices and strategies to favour professional identity development by stimulating student`s reflective practice. If students experience involvement, it promotes co-responsibility of the learning environment. Further, if the learning environment is represented as a collective, a productive and evaluating process where the students play an active and productive role, this seems to influence the quality of learning outcomes for the students. New learning of conceptions, that form a personal epistemology, also support the learning for students’ professional practice (Bruno & Dell’Aversana, 2018).

What field instructors (supervisors) in social work education emphasize in their own supervisory work has been little studied. Further, how they interpret their own supervisory work, shape their own role, what they emphasize, and what consequences different approaches to the role may have for students’ learning during the practical training period (Eriksen & Gradovski, 2022).

Social work lectures and mangers of social work programs in higher education should assess their pedagogical options, and how they can support authenticity and student agency in their social work programs. As this is a collegial endeavour, the first step may be to map current pedagogical practices and highlight good examples within social work programs. There is need for shared intention of WIL, with clear expectations and shared understanding of how the desired learning outcomes are enhanced through authentic WIL experiences (Fenton, 2025). Previous research has shown the value of WIL to promote students’ agency and enhancement of student outcomes (Ferns et al., 2025), but there is need for more knowledge in the context of social work education.

Social work students need to possess resilience based on certain attributes to become ready to practice as qualified social workers. Students report that space for personal growth and development is important for becoming prepared for the realities of the challenging social work settings in which they will work. Devices that sustain a learning environment that foster professional development by including emotional and relational ways of knowing, and that cultivates reflection in social work practice, play a mediating role (Bruno & Dell’Aversana, 2018; Van Vliet et al., 2025). Continuous integration between experience and reflection and the perception of the learning environment can support professional identity development and students, in making personal sense of the experience (Bruno & Dell’Aversana, 2018).

Collective, reflective action-oriented and future-looking role of peer reflection can help students become prepared for practice in the future and understanding the complexity of practice from more than their own perspective (Bruno & Dell’Aversana, 2018; Ferns et al., 2025; Trede & Jackson, 2021). In addition, field instructors need to practice critical symmetry in the supervisory relationship with students to create good learning environments for students during field placements (Eriksen, 2024). WIL is about meeting the needs of society in a broader sense (Sunnemark et al., 2024), which also correspond with the aim of social work (Joubert, 2021). Policy development and political analysis, as well as advocacy and political interventions, are considered part of social work practice (International Federation of Social Workers, 2026).

The findings from this study provide a basis for further studies concerning student agency in WIE/WIL, especially in the social work context. A narrative approach allows broad searches for research literature and to include and synthesise various national and international studies dealing with the chosen topic. Although studies of both social work and WIE/WIL emphasise the importance of individual and contextual differentiation, a synthesis of the literature can be helpful in teaching and learning about the topic by delivering a general overview. However, the wide variation in studies in terms of context and methodological approaches limits transferral of the findings to the unique Norwegian social work education context. As an interdisciplinary field of research, studies of WIE/WIL may nevertheless have a certain transfer value with important contributions to further understanding of student agency and professionalism for students of social work education, and across different local variations of social work, both nationally and internationally.

Policy development and political analysis, as well as advocacy and political interventions, are considered as key/core elements in social work practice both in Norway (Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research, 2019; 2026) and internationally (International Federation of Social Workers, 2026). The meaning of student agency in WIL/WIE in social work education in Norway should correspond both with the purpose of social work as a field of study, with learning outcomes in education and development of professionalism. Studies highlight the need for better integration between theory and practice, but also clarification of key objectives and methodical approaches in social work. Both national and international research literature emphasized a need to clarify both towards students’ and professionals’ expectations, when operating in a zone of complexity and uncertainty. There is also a need for clarifying different roles and areas of responsibility between higher education of social work, students and the practice field concerning how professional practices in social work have been and continues to be organized. Student activity in WIE/WIL is based on engagement and participation in discussions and activities of importance to the community. In line with central principles of WIL this invites to a rethinking of how professionalism is taught in higher education of social work and further research in the field.

The choice of having a narrative review approach with a non-systematic literature search, can be seen as a limitation. The choice to conduct the study as presented was based on the intention of reaching beyond a systematic review and to bring in the practice perspective from university lecturers in social work education programs and work-integrated learning research. Subjective perspectives are fundamentally intertwined in the qualitative research process (Olmos-Vega et al., 2022). Therefore, considering the contextual knowledge of the authors regarding the explored setting and of the explored concepts, the collaborative and interpretative process brought the narrative analysis forward in deeper way than possible in a systematic review (Sukhera, 2022). This study can instead form a basis for a more comprehensive and systematic form of review, which may be necessary to provide a systematic understanding of student agency in WIE/WIL in the social work context globally.

In the analytical process the researchers’ and authors’ backgrounds influenced the interpretative analytical process. The research group continuously reflected on the findings and how they were to be understood, both from the practice perspective as university lecturers and from a work-integrated learning research perspective. The subjectivity of the reflexivity process was embraced, and experienced as valuable in the analytical process, which is also described by Olmos-Vega et al (2023). If the analysis had been undertaken by a group with another pre-understanding there may have been other nuances that would have been brought forward, than what was found in the Norwegian context of social work education.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.