Sustainable Development Goal 17 (SDG 17) emphasizes the importance of partnerships and collaboration for achieving sustainable development goals (United Nations, 2015). Effective information sharing is a critical component of such partnerships, fostering stronger collaboration and enhancing collective action capacities. Songate et al. (2023) highlight the need for intensive knowledge production and transfer in today’s competitive global landscape. They stress the significance of information sharing in diversifying and integrating knowledge production actors, highlighting its role in social responsibility amid global disparities. They argue that international academic collaborations, by enabling cross-border knowledge transfer, spur creativity and global innovation. Furthermore, they propose that the internationalization of science enriches knowledge sharing, making it a key driver in advancing science and technology. However, Fosci et al. (2019) investigated the policies and practices of the European research funders on open science and underscored the importance of Incentivising researchers for open sharing of data and information.

Information sharing is a vital component of human activity and plays a crucial role in knowledge management and collaboration within organizations (Ahmad & Huvila, 2019; Ahmad & Karim, 2019; Savolainen, 2019; Widén & Hansen, 2012). Pham and Williamson (2018) explored the interconnectedness of information sharing and collaboration in academic and library staff settings within one Australian and one Vietnamese university. Their research employed an interpretive qualitative approach with data collected from 41 interviews, a focus group, a workshop, and numerous informal conversations with 58 participants. Their analysis revealed that while the Vietnamese university lacked the structural support for collaboration found in the Australian counterpart, this was compensated by the initiatives of the library staff, demonstrating the power of human agency. Trust and technology emerged as supportive elements in promoting effective collaboration and information sharing. The researchers concluded that successful collaboration relies on information sharing and vice versa. They underscored the role of supportive infrastructure, human agency, trust, and technology in fostering collaboration and information sharing.

Sharing information/knowledge can occur not only in organizations with formalized physical structures but also in temporary constructs established for a specific purpose, such as research teams undertaking international scientific collaborations or teams whose collaboration is based on joint works on projects. Information sharing is integral to effective collaboration, and its effectiveness is influenced by various factors, including organizational context and project characteristics (Ren et al, 2019). Effective knowledge sharing in multi-stakeholder collaborations hinges on several factors, including a common understanding and commitment to the project’s goals, initial respect and trust among members, and the presence of strong, charismatic leaders (Molina & Yoong, 2003). Trust has been regarded as an important antecedent of information sharing, and any lack of trust can increase the likelihood of miscommunication and withholding of information, which in turn can affect the success of the project and the sustainability of the partnership (Yue et al, 2022). Besides, concerns about confidentiality and limited access to resources can hinder information sharing and could lead to an increased risk of errors and influence work quality (Auschra, 2019). Despite the recognized importance of information sharing, there is a gap in understanding how knowledge/information sharing among project members contributes to the success or failure of international academic projects. This gap is particularly evident in the context of temporary constructs such as research teams in international scientific collaborations. Therefore, our study aims to address this gap by exploring the following overarching questions:

How can the process and models of knowledge/information sharing among project members influence the success or failure of international academic projects?

To guide this exploration, the study will utilize Giddens’ Theory of Structuration (Giddens, 1984). The theory provides a robust framework for studying information sharing among researchers by integrating the interplay of structure and agency. It explains how human behavior is shaped by both individual actions and the social structures that these actions produce and are constrained by. This duality of structure shows that social structures are both the medium and outcome of repeated practices. Researchers’ information-sharing behaviours are influenced by institutional structures like academic norms, funding bodies, and policies, as well as individual actions such as data sharing and collaboration. Additionally, the theory addresses the impact of power relations and resource access on researchers’ ability and willingness to share information, which is essential for identifying barriers and developing effective strategies.

The study will provide a deeper understanding of the role of information sharing in the success or failure of international academic projects and will potentially inform the development of more effective information sharing models for such collaborations, contributing to the successful realization of SDG 17.

Our study is based on a research project conducted using semi-structured interviews (including 12 questions on international academic collaborations) with 28 academicians and researchers who had prior involvement in at least one international academic project. The participants were purposefully selected from four diverse countries: India, Norway, Poland, and South Africa. These countries span a broad spectrum of geographical regions, cultural contexts, and economic conditions, encompassing Eastern European, Nordic, African, and South Asian cultures. This rich cultural mix, combined with varying levels of English proficiency, amplifies the diversity of the sample. This comprehensive representation enables an in-depth exploration of academic collaborations in different contexts. The features of participants are drawn in Table 1.

For this study, the data on questions regarding knowledge and information sharing during international academic collaborations were analysed. These questions were formulated as follows in the interviews:

how could the knowledge/information sharing among project members contribute to the success/failure of the international collaborative projects? Do you have any experience with/reflections on that? Which information sharing model could work better than others?

The transcriptions were imported into F4Analyse software (version 3.4.5) and were coded. The draft of codes was extracted from the transcription by one author, and the co-authors critically assessed the extracted codes and emerged themes to check the relevance and precision of assigned codes and themes. The reliability and validity of the analyses were sought via three approaches mentioned by Merriam and Grenier (2019, p. 31): 1) triangulation (using multiple sources of data, this is, cross-country data), 2) variations and diversity (via covering a diverse sample from various disciplines for greater applicability of the results in practice), and 3) deep and rich descriptions (i.e. providing enough description for contextualization of the study and transferability of the findings). The emergent themes/codes were discussed and decided by all authors.

Three main themes emerged from our data that capture the essence of information sharing behavior among researchers in international academic collaborations. These themes, each associated with a set of codes, provide a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics at play in such collaborative environments.

The first theme, the significance and value of sharing, underscores the importance and perceived value of information sharing in these collaborative settings. This theme encompasses codes such as the importance of sharing, valuing shared information and respecting experience/expertise, and willingness to share and trust. These codes collectively highlight the critical role of sharing in enhancing the overall productivity and success of international academic collaborations.

The second theme, mechanisms and platforms for effective communication and sharing, pertains to the mediums and mechanisms through which information is shared. The emergence of codes like effective communications and forums, safe systems/platforms, physical meetings, and documented guidelines/organized information under this theme indicates the need for robust and secure platforms that facilitate efficient communication and sharing of information.

The third theme, interpersonal dynamics and challenges in sharing, explores the interpersonal factors and potential hurdles in the information sharing process. The associated codes include collective action, power tensions, risks of sharing, and the leaders’ role. These codes shed light on the complexities and conflicts that might arise in information sharing and underscore the need for effective leadership to navigate these challenges.

The findings from our study underscore the significance and value of knowledge and information sharing in the context of international academic collaborations. Participants (academicians and researchers) across all four countries of Norway, Poland, India, and South Africa highlighted the benefits of sharing expertise and experiences, implying that the dissemination of knowledge within these collaborative frameworks contributes significantly to the success of a project. The participants highlight that the value of sharing is primarily derived from the infusion of new sources, resources, and perspectives that might not have been considered otherwise. However, they also mention that inefficient knowledge exchange could potentially harm project implementation, emphasizing the need for structured and efficient sharing mechanisms.

Our study revealed the importance of respecting and valuing shared information and the contributions of team members. Attentiveness to shared information and acknowledging each other’s thoughts and ideas is reported by participants as a critical aspect of successful collaborations. A Norwegian participant mentioned the idea of giving credit/incentive for shared information or data, and this could be explored further in future research as it might incentivize more open sharing of knowledge/information/data in academic projects. Similar results have been reported in literature (see for example, Fosci et al., 2019) on the role of incentives and their alignments with the whole research system. This is a good ground for supporting initiatives such as the toolbox for recognition and rewards in academic careers developed by Universities Norway (UHR, 2021) in which open sharing of research data has been regarded as a positive criterion for promotions of researchers.

The willingness to share and trust stood out as a crucial determinant of effective knowledge sharing and collaboration. As emphasized by interviewed participants in this study, motivation and openness play a significant role in the knowledge-sharing process. The participants also highlighted trust among partners as a critical factor that enables the willing sharing of resources without fears of exploitation. A lack of trust could lead to the independent evolution of projects, despite the existence of a collaborative relationship. These findings suggest that to facilitate open and effective knowledge sharing among project members, fostering trust is very vital, and they are in accordance with previous findings of Yue et al. (2022), in which, the positive role of trust in sustainable performance, and the negative consequences of lack of trust and withholding information have been highlighted.

The participants also point out to different methods and platforms utilized for information sharing in international academic collaborations. Participants valued face-to-face meetings for effective communication and correct understanding of shared information, considering them even more beneficial than digital ones. The use of online solutions like Google Drive or Dropbox for sharing was also suggested, but the need for a more integrated platform for information sharing was highlighted, emphasizing the importance of a centralized information sharing model where all relevant data is accessible in one place.

The findings of this study exhibit the complexities and challenges that arise in the interpersonal dynamics of academic collaborations. Power tensions were noted, with participants discussing situations where collaborators could use shared ideas to their advantage, particularly if they have access to advanced technology or resources. The ´free rider problem´ where some partners could exploit the shared information for their own ends, was also mentioned by participants that underscores the need for values to govern the sharing of information. The participants emphasized the role of a project leader in collecting, distributing, and organizing information, the need for management skills, and human relations skills.

These findings are in line with findings of Pham and Williamson (2018) on the role of infrastructure, human agency, trust, and technology in information sharing in the organizational context, and the fruitfulness of Structuration Theory in understanding their connections. The Structuration Theory posits that social practices are continuously being made and remade through an ongoing interplay between structures and agency (Giddens, 1984, pp. 1-29). The importance of sharing, as highlighted in our findings, can be seen as an aspect of the structure in Structuration Theory. It’s a social practice that has been established as beneficial and necessary in international academic collaborations. This structure is upheld through the agency of individuals, in this case, researchers and academicians, who actively participate in sharing their expertise and experiences. The structure thus both constrains and enables the agency—it guides the researchers on how they should behave in collaboration (i.e., share knowledge, information, and data) but also provides them the opportunity to add new perspectives and resources to the project. Written agreements can be considered a type of structure that offers rules (the terms of the agreement) and resources (the information shared) for the individuals involved (researchers in international projects). While these agreements serve as a formal structure, they are not strictly inhibiting or confining. Instead, they facilitate information sharing by setting clear expectations, outlining roles, and creating a shared framework for collaboration.

The role of trust in international academic collaborations previously mentioned can also be examined through Structuration Theory. Trust could be viewed as a structural property of these collaborations, a norm that has been established as critical for the willing sharing of resources. Simultaneously, trust is also perpetuated and strengthened (or weakened) through the actions of the individuals involved in the collaboration. Positive experiences and mutual respect can foster trust, while instances of the ´free rider problem´ can erode it.

Our findings relating to the use of different methods and platforms for information sharing can be seen as the modality in the theory, which is the means through which the structure is translated into action. The choice of face-to-face meetings or online solutions like Google Drive or Dropbox are the modalities that the researchers employ to navigate the structure of academic collaborations.

Furthermore, the complexities and challenges highlighted in the findings, such as power dynamics and the risks of sharing, can be seen as the contradictions that could be extracted from the theory. Giddens (1984, p. 14) defines action as the capacity of individuals to intentionally impact their surroundings or alter existing situations. He posits that if an individual loses the ability to make a difference, it ceases to function as an agent:

action depends upon the capability of the individual to make a difference to a pre-existing state of affairs or course of events. An agent ceases to be such if he or she loses the capability to make a difference, that is, to exercise some sort of power (Giddens, 1984, p. 14).

This study underlines the interconnectedness of sharing, trust, and the role of effective leadership in international academic collaborations. It reveals that the process of sharing is not just about disseminating information but is also deeply rooted in mutual respect, acknowledgment of contributions, and the willingness to be open. It also highlights the need for secure and efficient platforms for knowledge sharing and the importance of leaders who can effectively manage and facilitate the process. Besides, it shows the complexities and challenges inherent in these collaborations, such as power dynamics, the risks of sharing, and the potential for exploitation.

Researchers from India, Norway, Poland, and South Africa highlighted the critical role of trust in successful knowledge sharing, and the level of trust and willingness to share were relatively similar across cultures. Indian and South African researchers stressed the necessity of mutual respect and trust for open sharing, while Norwegian and Polish researchers noted that without sufficient trust, the collaborative efforts can break down, leading to parallel but uncoordinated efforts rather than cohesive joint projects. Furthermore, while Indian researchers prioritized mutual respect and acknowledgment, Norwegian researchers suggested incentives, and Polish researchers emphasized respecting contributions from experienced team members. Power dynamics were a concern in all countries, with Indian and South African researchers particularly noting the risk of exploitation of shared ideas, highlighting the need for clear values and agreements. Additionally, the role of leadership was emphasized, with Polish and Norwegian researchers underscoring the need for project leaders to effectively manage information sharing, navigate power dynamics, and ensure equitable participation.

Future research could explore these dynamics further and work towards developing strategies and mechanisms to mitigate these challenges and enhance the effectiveness and impact of international academic collaborations.

This study provides valuable insights into knowledge and information sharing in international academic collaborations but has some limitations. The qualitative data was gathered through purposive sampling from a small number of researchers (who filled our inclusion criteria), which may introduce selection bias and not fully capture the diversity of experiences in international projects. This limitation should be considered when interpreting and applying the study’s findings.