This study adopted a survey design using quantitative procedures to collect data through questionnaires. A multi-stage sampling technique was used for this study (see figure 2 below). The first stage involved the use of cluster sampling to put the universities to the 3 geopolitical regions in the South of Nigeria. The second stage involved a random sampling technique to select 3 universities from each region to represent the 3 generations of universities in Nigeria and selection of 3 privately funded universities. and in the third stage, a total enumeration technique was used to sample the 453 professionals (all librarians and library officers) of these 12 universities.

Quantitative data was collected using structured questionnaires. 453 questionnaires were administered to the respondents across 12 universities in Nigeria; 432 questionnaires were retrieved, and 408 questionnaires were properly filled and found useful for the analysis of this study. Data collected for the study was analyzed using SPSS version 23. T-test of independent sample and Pearson product moment correlation (PPMC) was used to test the hypotheses of the study. The hypotheses were set at 0.05 level of significance.

Table 1 shows the demographic analysis of the respondents. Based on institutions, FUTO has the most respondents while Elizade University has the least respondents. Result based on gender shows that there is more female representation. Analysis of designation shows that library officers are more than librarians. Based on their educational qualifications, it was shown that staff that hold Diploma are more, and PhD comes as the least. Analysis of work experience shows that most of the respondents had between 6 to 10 years’ working experience.

Research question 1: what are the task-based digital skills possessed by university library professionals in Nigeria?

Table 2 shows university library professionals in Nigeria lack digital skills for acquisition and serials tasks. While they possess some skills for cataloging tasks, it is evident they are not skilled in using the Z39.50 tool and OCLC. However, they are skilled in the circulation and patron tasks. The extent of automation in the university libraries in Nigeria shows the level of contact the professionals have with the various operations of their library management systems hence the reason for an average level of skill in cataloging and circulation routine and a low level of skill in the other library routine they are less exposed to such as acquisition and serial routines (Ajani & Buraimo, 2021).

Research question 2: what are the staff-side factors that impede the existing digital skill development programs for university library professionals in Nigeria

Personal factors: library staff reported that their prior formal library school education lacked courses on digital library technologies. This curriculum gap is a barrier to developing digital skills. Many library schools still offer outdated courses, and even where digital courses exist, they tend to be theoretical due to a lack of practical facilities and qualified instructors. Ikolo and Nongo (2022) assert that same is still the case. Also, staff members often cannot afford self-sponsored digital training, particularly when international training opportunities require travel and foreign currency expenses, making it difficult for those from developing countries like Nigeria to access these opportunities. Aregbesola et.al, (2019) alluded that the challenge of affordability caused by foreign exchange subsumes most developing countries. Additionally, gender-related challenges, particularly for women in developing countries especially Africa, affect their ability to develop digital skills. Female professionals in Nigeria are faced with care-giving responsibilities (e.g., childbirth and family care), which often lead to career interruptions and limit their opportunities for digital skills development compared to their male counterparts (Adjah & Walt, 2019; Akhtar & Soroya, 2021).

Organizational factors: many library staff perceive a lack of commitment from university library management to support digital skills development. There is limited financial backing for training programs, with staff development often not prioritized. Akintola et.al. (2022) alluded that library personnel in the universities perceived that library management was not committed to capacity building as there is irregular sponsorship for training from their university. Due to economic challenges facing the universities and low budgetary allocations for staff development, university libraries struggle to sponsor training programs for their staff. Additionally, the non-payment of salaries affects staff morale and further discourages participation in training opportunities. Mapulanga (2014) observed that the dwindling economy in most developing countries and especially in Nigeria has put the universities management in financial quagmire of meeting their obligations on training and wages payment (Vanguard Newpaper, 2024). Even when training opportunities come, non-payment of salary affects their morale and motivation to attend training programs.

Hypothesis 1: there are no significant gender differences in digital skills level possessed by university library professionals in Nigeria.

Table 4 revealed that there was significant gender difference in digital skills level possessed by library staff in Nigeria. The result shows that male professionals have more digital skills than the women professionals. This outcome aligns with the findings of Deyrup (2014) and Ashiq and Warraich (2023) who identified that one of the challenges of female professionals in the libraries is lack of digital skills and the digital space is gradually moving towards masculinity. Golub and Jose (2009) analyzed the professional trends and reveals a new pattern of dual career tracking in which men are associated with technology and women with management.

Hypothesis 2: there is no significant correlation between the years of work experience and digital skills level possessed by library staff in the use of library automation in Nigeria.

Table 5 revealed a significant positive correlation between years of work experience and the digital skills level of library staff in Nigeria. Further t-test analysis revealed that library staff with 0 to 10 years of experience possess higher digital skills than those with 11 years and above. This is significant because most of the study’s participants fall into the 0 to 10 years category, suggesting that many of them are younger, possibly digital natives, who interact more frequently with technology in their daily work. In contrast, the group with over 10 years of experience primarily represents the library leadership, responsible for decision-making. The study highlights that the library leadership in Nigerian universities may lack the necessary digital skills due to outdated prior library school training which were not aligned with the demands of the current digital environment. This has left the leadership underprepared to address the challenges posed by new technologies (Ariole et al., 2017; Olubiyo, 2022).

Hypothesis 3: there is no significant correlation between the level of education and digital skills level possessed by library staff in Nigeria.

Hypothesis 4: there is no significant difference in the career cadre on the digital skills level possessed by library staff in Nigeria.

Table 6 indicates a significant positive correlation between the level of education and the digital skills level of library staff in Nigeria. This suggests that higher levels of formal education contribute to better digital skills. The study also distinguishes between two career cadres: librarians and library officers and reveals a significant difference in digital skills between these two groups, with librarians possessing higher levels of digital skills compared to library officers. Librarians typically hold at least a bachelor’s degree in library and information science or a related field, while library officers have a diploma in the same field. These findings align with Inyang and Mngutayo (2018) and Ibegbulam and Eze (2016), who noted that formal education is a key avenue for acquiring the required skills and so, paraprofessionals, like library officers, tend to have lower digital skills.

Figure 3 shows a self-developed adaptation of the UTAUT model based on the findings of this study.

Effort expectancy: this concept refers to the ease with which library professionals can use technology operational tasks. To improve the ability to use technology with ease, digital skills development is essential. Gender, work experience and organizational factors were found to be significant moderating factors. Female staff and those with more years of experience exhibiting lower digital skill will hinder task. Also, lack of motivation and incentives from the organization influence willingness to develop skills which is crucial for operational use of technology.

Social influence: social influence pertains to how career position, education, and social status can affect technology use. The study highlights that staff with higher education levels, particularly senior staff (librarians with master’s or PhD qualifications), are more skilled in using technology than those with lower educational qualifications. Career cadre and education level were identified as moderators of social influence, impacting the intention to develop digital skills.

Facilitating conditions: conditions such as technical infrastructure, organizational support, and personal factors (e.g., financial stability, health, willingness to learn) are essential to overcoming barriers to digital skills development. Gender-related challenges (e.g., care-giving responsibilities) and organizational factors (e.g., incentives, remuneration) also play a significant role in influencing staff’s intention to develop digital skills.

Motivation and willingness: this new emergence highlights the importance of addressing personal and organizational concerns to increase staff motivation and willingness to improve their digital skills. Key factors like financial stability, timely payment of wages, workplace gender-related issues, and promotion opportunities play a significant influence on digital skills development.