User diversity has been addressed in many different library contexts. For example, the UN Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities demands that all people with functional variations shall have access to ‘cultural materials in accessible formats’ and ‘places for cultural performances or services, such as […] libraries’ (United Nations, 2006, p. 22). Legislation may also address user diversity. For example, in Norway, the public library law emphasises that the library services should be available to all the people living in the country and the library has a special responsibility towards people who have difficulties using the library (Folkebibliotekloven, 2014). Denmark (Danske Love, 1985), Finland (Ministry of Education and Culture, 2016), and Sweden (Sveriges Riksdag, 2013) are examples of other countries where libraries make this emphasis.

According to Audunson (2005), libraries represent low-intensive meeting places where patrons are exposed to people with diverse interests and values which should promote a sense of community and tolerance. Pateman and Vincent (2016), however, argue that public libraries in general are not as inclusive as commonly perceived, and they suggest a needs-based approach to library services. Pateman and Pateman (2017) call for a bigger emphasis on non-users and people with the greatest needs to transform libraries from ‘institutions of social control into agencies of social change’ (p. 14).

The four-space model of public libraries (Jochumsen et al., 2012) emphasises that libraries should cater for people’s needs for experience, involvement, empowerment, and innovation. Four different spaces: inspiration space, learning space, meeting space, and performative space, are envisioned to enable visitors’ diverse expectations of the libraries. These spaces do not all need to be implemented in the physical libraries, but when planning libraries’ architecture, design, activities, and services, the model may serve as inspiration.

The skills and knowledge of librarians, administrators, policymakers, and other people working in a library play a vital role when planning services and making action plans. Consequently, librarians with diversity experience and their perspectives on diversity can lead to more inclusive library services (Hill, 2013; Vincent, 2024). A study by Pionke (2020) exploring library employees and their views on disability and accessibility showed that much work is needed to make more equitable and inclusive library spaces and programs. Similar findings are reported for other user characteristics, such as gender identity (Wexelbaum Rachel, 2018) and mental health variations (Hall & McAlister, 2021), to name a few. Librarians represent an occupational group that will meet all types of people during their work life. Building trust and showing all types of users that they can use the library on an equal basis is one measure to ensure that certain groups are not disadvantaged in accessing and understanding information via library services.

Over the recent years, universal design has become a common approach to accommodate for user diversity, both in society in general and in context of libraries. Universal design entails designing products, environments or services so they can be used by all people without the need for adaptation or specialised design (Persson et al., 2015). Although universal design started as a tool to increase physical access for people with functional variations, it has now become an approach to enhance social justice among people regardless of their user characteristics (Dolph, 2021). Universal design has therefore been applied in context of libraries to increase the accessibility for all types of users. For example, the American Library Association has developed a checklist to make libraries more accessible and usable (Burgstahler, 2014.). A related concept, Universal Design for Learning, has also been applied in settings such as school libraries to make inclusive educational environments (Spina, 2017).

Over the years, there have been different views on diversity, particularly in the context of functional variations. For a long time, the medical model was the dominant view on disability, with an individual focus where people were regarded as disabled due to having impairments. In the 1970s this view was challenged by, among others, Union of Physically Impaired Against Segregation which claimed that disability was a relationship between people with impairments and a discriminatory society (Shakespeare, 2004). Mike Oliver introduced the term ‘the social model’ in 1983, which comprised a view on disability focusing on disabling barriers in society (Oliver, 2013). Another approach is the Nordic relational model, also referred to as ‘the Gap model’, which claims that disability occurs when there is a mismatch between a person’s abilities and demands from the environment in specific contexts and situations (Jónasdóttir & Horghagen, 2024). In other words, people are disabled because of both environmental factors and due to having an impairment.

The medical, social, and gap models regard the cause of disability differently, but are still based upon the dichotomy between abilities and disabilities. This view was challenged by Wobbrock et al. (2011) who claim that it makes more sense to address what people can do rather than focusing on what they cannot do. Wobbrock et al. (2011) refer to this concept as ability-based design. Furthermore, human abilities should be regarded as a spectrum, and they can be affected by many different factors, such as disabling situations. Therefore, Wobbrock et al. (2018) state: ‘designing for abilities in context leads to more usable, accessible systems for all people’ (p. 62). Examples of disabling situations include divided attention, distraction, bodily motion, physical obstacles, occupied hands, cold temperatures, light levels, ambient noise, multitasking, stress, and fatigue. These are situations commonly experienced by many people. Although ability-based design is discussed in terms of interactive systems by Wobbrock et al. (2011), the basic assumptions can be transferred to a library and information science context (Berget, 2024).

In the context of gender identity, Bem and Lenney (1976, p. 48) found that androgynous individuals were better able ‘to “do well” at both masculine and feminine behaviors’ than ‘sex-typed’ persons, i.e. persons living up to gender stereotypes. Trans persons have a gender identity differing from the sex they were assigned at birth. Some persons do not identify as either male or female but prefer to be identified outside of the gender binary. Gender identity is hence considered to be fluid. Among trans people, various surveys find that a substantial number of persons identify as non-binary (Richards et al., 2016). Studies also reveal that many trans people experience discrimination in many areas of society (Lombardi et al., 2002). Accommodations such as gender-neutral bathrooms, providing recent transgender literature, and including gender identity or expression as part of library non-discrimination policy can make trans people feel safe in the library (Drake & Bielefield, 2017).

Mental health variations have often been associated with stigma and is frequently related to low levels of knowledge and discriminatory attitudes (Evans-Lacko et al., 2012). Research has shown that people are more likely to seek help in societies with less stigma related to having a mental illness (Corrigan et al., 2014). According to Green (2020), public libraries have great potential to reduce stigma related to mental health variations. With regards to serious mental illness, however, many librarians have expressed concerns regarding potential violent behaviour. At the same time, librarians call for more awareness and knowledge, which may improve interactions with users with mental health variations (Pressley, 2017).

There are many aspects of the library building that may impact the level of inclusion. In the context of gender identity, gender-divided bathrooms represent one of the main physical barriers (Lerner, 2021; Robinson, 2016). If Alex or Jim visit a library with gender-divided bathrooms, there are two main issues: which bathroom should they use, and what attitudes towards gender identity are being conveyed by the library? It has been argued that gender-divided bathrooms do not represent a barrier if they use the ‘self-identified principle’ where people can choose which bathroom to use. However, some people, such as Jim, do not identify with a binary gender identity (Richards et al., 2016). In other cases, people who have not yet come out as transgender, e.g., Alex, may not want to be observed by others in the local community using a bathroom that does not correspond to the sex they were allocated at birth (Brumbaugh-Johnson & Hull, 2019). Some people may have a fear of being asked by others why they were using ‘the wrong bathroom’. It is therefore important that librarians understand the impact of gender-divided and gender-neutral bathrooms upon the accessibility and user-friendliness for people with all types of gender identities.

With respect to sounds, library buildings pose many challenges and opportunities. On the one hand, Jim uses the library as an alternative place to study and wishes to find a quiet place to concentrate (Palmer, 2022) because they find libraries to be ‘a therapeutic landscape’ (Brewster, 2014; Green, 2020). For people with ASD, it has been reported that libraries should offer areas with a certain noise level (Muir et al., 2019) while avoiding the whole building being noisy (Shea & Derry, 2019). Beth, for example, has verbal tics which she is not comfortable with exposing in public and wishes to be in a room with some background noise. Rob often brings his son to the library so that he can meet and play with other children while Rob uses the library computer to get free Internet access. The ‘four-space model’ (Jochumsen et al., 2012) describes four different spaces relating to four different goals of public libraries: inspiration space; learning space; meeting space; and performative space. Although not all spaces may be implemented physically in all libraries, the model may serve as point of departure for designing and planning library buildings in a way that facilitates learning for Jim and Rob, playing and meeting others for Rob’s son, and seeking inspiration in surroundings Beth is comfortable with. Based upon these personas with different and sometimes contradictory needs, knowledge of how to plan library buildings to accommodate varying levels of sound is essential to include as many types of people as possible.

Enabling library users’ mobility in the building is also central. Some people may have permanent conditions limiting their mobility, such as John, who uses a rollator to support walking and whose condition may worsen. Others, like Rob, whose son is still in a pram, and Beth, who has broken her foot, have temporary conditions. The physical space and infrastructure of the library should, as illustrated here, take into account a variety of contexts and situations (Wobbrock et al., 2018). For example, Pionke (2020, p. 128) addresses how the doorway width of a library caused problems for a person entering with a mobility scooter and how assumptions about accessibility may result in a library having ‘twenty standing workstations with one sitting accessible workstation tucked in a corner’. Having knowledge of both permanent and temporary impairments might therefore be important to ensure equal access for all types of users.

Previous research includes many studies of how classification systems disadvantage many groups of people, characterising their faith, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or gender identity. For Alex, who is interested in learning more about their gender identity, the organisation of books in the library about trans persons may affect them. Nowak and Mitchell (2016) discussed challenges relating to the classification of an LGBT library, using the Library of Congress classification system, pointing out that library material on identities ‘such as transgender people, bisexual people, gay men, and lesbians—were listed as part of the section that begins with “Sexual deviations” and includes rather morally loaded categories such as prostitution and emasculation’ (p. 6). To ensure that all types of users feel welcome in the library, it is necessary to regularly go through the classification schemes used and critically assess the organisation of the collection to avoid people feeling stigmatised by improper classification such as in the example addressed by Nowak and Mitchell.

While classification codes for non-fiction greatly affects the organisation of the collection, categories applied for fiction is also important. In this study, Beth would be an example of a person who would benefit from reading adapted books, but also Jim, Rob, Tom, and John may prefer such books because reading skills may be affected by lack of sleep, illness, or other factors (Bonifacci et al., 2008; Kamboj et al., 2005; Torres et al., 2021). Many libraries use the label ‘easy reads’ for certain books. This label might be purposeful to signal which part of the book collection that is useful for children who are learning to read. In contrast, such a label may have the opposite effect if the category is used to convey that the books are less demanding to read for people with reading difficulties. Previous research has shown that people with reading impairments do not want to be seen reading the ‘easy’ books (Berget & Fagernes, 2018; Brante, 2013; Gambrell, 2011), which entails a need for other types of category names, such as ‘a little bit to read’. A term such as ‘easy to read’ indicates that a book is not difficult to read, and one can imagine how a person with reading impairments might feel when not being able to read these books, either. Many people with reading difficulties have impaired self-esteem (Boyes et al., 2016), and the library should not contribute to such negative feelings. Librarians therefore need to understand how to display and communicate their fiction collection based upon respect for all types of readers and an understanding that people need different types of books.

Alex has many information needs which cannot be solved at home since they do not wish to ask their family about issues relating to gender identity. As a place that is considered neutral, the public library should be a place where people can ask questions they are afraid to ask elsewhere. According to Drake and Bielefield (2017), however, trans persons prefer other sources than public libraries to find trans-specific information, such as information about legal issues, medical health, political information, or other information having impact on their daily life. If librarians do not manage to build a trusting relationship with people such as Alex, they might end up being deprived of relevant information. Several studies emphasise how trans persons use different Internet sources (Cavalcante, 2016; Hawkins & Haimson, 2018) to support their meaning-making on gender, in particular during their period of transition (Huttunen & Kortelainen, 2021).

Another persona that has implications for the reference services is Mia, who uses sign language. Previous studies have revealed that communication with librarians constitute the main barrier for many people who are deaf, because librarians do not seem prepared to communicate with library users in alternative ways (Payne, 2022; Pionke, 2020). Mia can read lips, but to be able to communicate in this way, the reference desk must be situated in an area with sufficient lightning and the librarian must be aware of the importance of looking at Mia while talking to her and to avoid mumbling. In the case of Beth, librarians must be aware that not all people are comfortable with eye contact or socialising with others (Spain & Blainey, 2015) and may prefer navigating the library collection by themselves.

A common task for librarians is to recommend books, either by request from library users or through book talks or displays. To ensure that all types of readers have access to high quality literature, librarians must have knowledge of causes for reading difficulties and types of adapted books. For example, while most people probably understand that people with dyslexia may struggle with reading, it might be less common knowledge that people who are deaf may also experience reading difficulties (Perfetti, 2007). Mia is an example of a library user who loves books, but who might benefit from reading an adapted book (Berget, 2022). In this case, it is important that librarians have sufficient knowledge of adapted books to ensure that adults are not given children’s books, but age-appropriate books of high literary quality.

There might be other situations where people for various reasons need books that demand, e.g., less concentration or reading skills. For example, Jim, Rob, Tom, and John will all experience impaired reading skills due to situational factors or illness (Bonifacci et al., 2008; Kamboj et al., 2005; Torres et al., 2021). It is therefore important that librarians have knowledge of the range of factors that can affect reading abilities, not only have knowledge of reading impairments such as dyslexia.

Different types of events are common in public libraries. Libraries have the potential to improve social inclusion, for example for low-income families, such as Rob’s family, (Igarashi et al., 2023; Lopez et al., 2023) or people with mental health variations such as Tom (Green, 2020). Libraries have also been reported to be successful in developing sustainable dementia-friendly communities (Dickey, 2023). Tom prefers to attend events at his local library over activities organised by health care organisations. He does not want to experience the stigma he feels from visiting his local health care centre (Corrigan et al., 2014). Public libraries are not associated with such stigma and through events they may provide persons that otherwise may feel stigmatised with a place to meet which support their needs (Morgan et al., 2016). One example of such an event are memory cafes, which are very well suited for people with dementia or other forms of memory loss, such as John, who need mind-stimulating activities (Charbonneau & Rathnam, 2020). It is therefore important that librarians are aware of the potential of libraries as places not associated with stigma.