Today, a vast amount of information is available in cyberspace. However, we are also faced with the phenomenon of information pollution, which includes false and misleading information, posing a significant challenge in information retrieval. The rampant dissemination of fake news on social platforms is not just a nuisance but a formidable challenge that demands immediate attention and action (Muhammed & Mathew, 2022).

In this paper, fake news is used to indicate sources that fabricate information, disseminate deceptive content, or strongly falsify actual news reports (Zimdars, 2016, as cited in Rochlin, 2017). In other words, a piece of fake, false, or deceptive content, analysed as a complex construct that does not have clear signs and is often designed to provoke strong emotional reactions; it is easily shared unknowingly across social media platforms, causing the spread of misleading information and misinformation (Sharapkova & Merkulova, 2023; Tandoc et al., 2018; Vosoughi et al., 2018). As evidenced by recent studies, a significant portion of readers share such information for specific reasons (for example, political motives, engagement, or humour), but many do so under the belief that the misinformation is factual (Banerjee et al., 2024; Tian & Willnat, 2025).

As Floridi (2016), writing in The Guardian, notes:

This phenomenon has far-reaching consequences, influencing political opinions, societal beliefs, and even public health behaviour. Misinformation and fake news can significantly disrupt the dissemination of accurate information, distorting public opinion and posing a threat to the psychological well-being and health of nations. Moreover, they undermine the fundamental right of individuals to access truthful information freely (Vosoughi et al., 2018). As a clear example, its destructive role was particularly evident in the 2016 US presidential election and the COVID-19 pandemic (Al-Zaman, 2021; Kalsnes, 2018). Given the significant impact of social media on the dissemination and consumption of information, recognizing the factors that facilitate the detection and sharing of fake news becomes crucial. This understanding is crucial not only for mitigating its impact but also for maintaining social harmony and promoting informed decision-making (Wu, 2024).

Although the academic literature has not reached a consensus on the specific individual factors that lead to challenges in identifying fake news and the willingness to share it, the problem of fake news on social media has attracted the attention of researchers in recent years, given the dangers of the spread of fake news in society and the importance of identifying effective factors to take necessary preventive measures Factors such as information literacy (Faragó et al, 2023; Orhan, 2023;), critical thinking (Pennycook & Rand, 2019; Shephard et al, 2023), emotional intelligence (Potenciando et al., 2024; Preston et al., 2021), and individual characteristics (Arin et al., 2023; Buchanan, 2020) have been examined for their impact on identifying and sharing fake news. In the present study, the latter two are of interest to researchers.

As mentioned, emotional intelligence (EI) has appeared as a key determinant in one’s ability to recognize misleading or false information. So, recent researchers have begun unravelling the complex psychological, cognitive, and emotional factors influencing individuals’ susceptibility to fake news (Horner et al., 2021; Martel et al., 2020; Potenciando et al., 2024; Preston et al., 2021; Taurino et al., 2023). Emotional intelligence emerged in the 1990s as a construct based on abilities, similar to general intelligence. In simple terms, it refers to the ability to recognize and regulate emotions in oneself and others, encompassing self-control, enthusiasm, perseverance, and the capacity to motivate oneself (Sasikumar & Manikandan, 2017). The most formal definition of emotional intelligence refers to the ability to identify and express emotions, understand emotions, integrate emotions into thought, and regulate positive and negative emotions in oneself and others (Dhani & Sharma, 2016). There are various instruments for measuring emotional intelligence, with the most commonly used being the Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EQ-i), the Schott Self-Report Inventory (SSRI), and the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test 2.0 (MSCEIT 2.0) (Bru-Luna et al., 2021). The significant facets common to emotional intelligence measures include perceiving emotions, regulating emotions, and utilizing emotions (O’Connor et al., 2019).

Potenciado et al. (2024), in a study conducted among students at the University of Mindanao, Philippines, examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and the ability to detect fake news. Analysis of the results revealed a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and fake news detection, with self-awareness exhibiting the highest correlation and self-management showing the lowest correlation. Self-awareness has a positive influence on the ability to detect fake news. Overall, emotional attachment increased the likelihood of believing false information, suggesting that emotional processing may make individuals more susceptible to misinformation. The results of a study by Taurino et al. (2023), which examined cognitive, emotional, and personality factors for identifying fake news, showed that people with high levels of psychosis, impulsivity, suspiciousness, and low analytical reasoning were more likely to believe fake news. Although social media platforms contribute to the spread of fake news, individual vulnerabilities also play an important role. Horner et al. (2021) emphasized that emotions play a crucial yet often overlooked role in the dissemination of fake news. The results of a study by Preston et al. (2021), which examined the effect of emotional intelligence on identifying fake news, showed that participants who scored higher on emotional perception were less likely to be exposed to fake news. This finding supports the idea that individuals with high emotional intelligence are more likely to be able to see beyond the emotional content that characterizes fake news, leading to more effective critical evaluation of the content’s likely veracity.

Furthermore, Martel et al. (2020) examined the relationship between an individual’s emotions and mood, as well as their recognition and belief in fake news. They found that emotions play a significant role in the belief in fake news, negatively affecting individuals’ ability to discern the truth. These findings highlight the importance of emotions in cognitive and decision-making processes when encountering fake news.

On the other hand, although there is still no systematic evidence on the impact of age and other individual-level characteristics such as education, gender or income on the ability to detect fake news, conducting studies in this area and obtaining such evidence may help vulnerable groups by targeting them and appropriate policy measures such as fake news warnings that remind viewers of potentially misleading or inaccurate information.

The results of the few studies that have been conducted on this topic show that demographic factors such as age, education, cultural background, and socioeconomic status also contribute to how individuals engage with and assess the credibility of information (Arin et al., 2023; Buchanan, 2020; Grinberg et al., 2019) The results of the study by Arin et al. in Germany and the United Kingdom (UK) to identify individual factors in the recognition and willingness to share fake news, indicate the importance of age, political orientation, and income in the pervasive problem of spreading fake news. However, the results regarding individual differences were not entirely consistent in both countries. For example, the results show that those with higher education in Germany are better able to detect fake news, while in the UK, this ability does not depend on education. On the other hand, right-wing respondents in the UK are worse at detecting fake news than left-wing respondents. Such an effect is not detectable in Germany. When it comes to sharing fake news, young and politically right-wing respondents are more likely to spread fake news in both countries. In the UK, female respondents are more likely to spread fake news, while in Germany, the difference is negligible. Furthermore, while Buchanan (2020) showed that younger, male, and less educated individuals were more likely to spread misinformation on social media in the UK, Grinberg et al. (2019) who examined the sharing of fake news during the 2016 US presidential election, found that conservatives and those over 65 were more likely to share pro-Trump fake news.

Considering that the findings from the limited studies conducted so far indicate that the influence of individual characteristics differs across societies, it is essential to replicate these studies in diverse cultural settings. In this study, we conduct extensive surveys in Iran to investigate the personal factors that influence people’s ability to recognize fake news and their tendency to share it, whether intentionally or unintentionally.

Iran is a country in the Middle East with a population of c.92.6 million (as at October 2025). Based on datareportal.com a total of 151 million cellular mobile connections were active in Iran in late 2025, with this figure equivalent to 163 percent of the total population, indicating that almost everyone has access to a mobile phone and is thus potentially exposed to fake news on the Internet (Kemp, 2025). Given the complexity of the mechanisms behind the spread of fake news, this study aims to explore the intricate relationships among emotional intelligence, demographic factors, and the processes of identifying and disseminating false information on social media in Iran. Specifically, the first objective is to investigate the impact of demographic characteristics and emotional intelligence on the detection of fake news. We examine the effect of demographic characteristics and emotional intelligence on sharing fake news. The second objective examines whether the sharing of fake news was deliberate or accidental, and at the end, examines the question of whether sharing in the study community is more deliberate or accidental. Understanding this distinction is important for shaping effective policies. If fake news is spread mainly by accident, then we can focus on helping people improve their ability to spot it. However, if it is shared primarily for a purpose, simply teaching people to identify it will not be enough. In that case, we may need to adopt a broader approach to tackle the underlying societal issues that contribute to the spread of misinformation (Arin et al., 2023).

This study aims to provide a more nuanced understanding of the psychological and social dynamics involved in combating online fake news. Understanding how these demographic differences intersect with emotional intelligence (EI) can provide valuable insights into the mechanisms behind the spread of fake news.

Our research offers a novel contribution to the expanding body of literature on fake news in five significant ways:

First, the results of this study are important for increasing awareness and sensitivity about the impact of individual characteristics on the detection and sharing of fake news through social media, providing empirical evidence to improve the understanding of the dissemination of fake news. Overall, this study contributes to the growing body of literature on users’ interactions with fake news. Planners and practitioners can use its results to tailor educational and prevention programmes for the dissemination of fake news, as identifying the factors influencing and associated with the distribution of fake news is essential and helpful in tailoring appropriate educational and prevention programmes for specific populations.

Second to the best of our knowledge, the majority of prior research has been concentrated in Western contexts (the United States and Europe). The present study is among the few to examine fake news detection and sharing within an Asian context, specifically Iran. This addresses the recent encouragement for researchers to investigate diverse cultural contexts.

Third, we simultaneously study the detection of fake news, as well as its accidental and deliberate sharing, in an experimental setting. Few studies examining the sharing of fake news have examined whether the sharing of fake news is deliberate or accidental. The importance of these findings lies in the fact that if sharing is accidental, then enhancing citizens’ ability to detect fake news could hinder its spread. However, if sharing fake news is deliberate, improving citizens’ ability to detect fake news will not be practical, and a different approach may be necessary to overcome the social gap.

Fourth, the current study employs a user-centred approach to investigate personality traits that may help identify individuals who are more likely to click on, accept, or share fake news than others. In short, the question is, “Who is interested in fake news and who is sharing it?” If a profile of personality traits can be identified, this provides an opportunity to develop interventions that reduce this likelihood in such individuals.

Five, by examining the impact of emotional intelligence, the results of this study help people from all walks of life think about the relationship between emotional intelligence and the prevalence of fake news. This helps them better assess whether their emotions are affecting their ability to absorb information. Furthermore, this will also benefit society as a whole, because when people understand that recognizing fake news is related to their ability to manage emotions, they will be better able to evaluate and gauge the information they are going to absorb.

This study explored the impact of personal traits, including demographic characteristics and Emotional Intelligence (EI), on the ability to identify and share fake news among 609 Iranian participants aged over 18 years.

Our results indicated no significant association between demographic characteristics and the ability to detect fake news (P > 0.05). In contrast, Arian et al. (2023) examined individual factors influencing the detection and willingness to share fake news and found that while higher education levels enhanced a greater ability to detect fake news among German participants, this correlation was absent in their UK sample. Furthermore, we found a positive association of gender (P < 0.001) and education level (P < 0.001) with the willingness to share news. Specifically, men in our study were more likely to share news than women. This differs from Arian et al. (2023), who found that British women were more likely to share news, while observing no gender correlation in their German cohort. Similarly, Ahmed et al. (2023), analysed and compared self-regulation in the sharing of deepfakes across seven South Asian countries and the United States, noting a lack of association between gender and sharing behaviour exclusively in Vietnam, while a relationship was observed in the other countries (US, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand).

Consequently, there is significant debate regarding the influence of demographic characteristics on the identification and sharing of fake news. It appears that cultural and social differences across various societies might influence how demographic factors affect the recognition and dissemination of false information.

In terms of emotional intelligence, we found that individuals exhibiting higher emotional intelligence demonstrated a markedly enhanced capacity to discern false information, corroborating findings from existing literature (Llamas et al., 2022; Potenciando et al., 2024; Preston et al., 2021; Walsh, 2023). It should be noted that, although people with higher emotional intelligence (EI) performed better in identifying fake news, the absence of a critical thinking criterion in the present study leaves it ambiguous whether those with high emotional intelligence were inherently more proficient critical thinkers. Among the four sub-components of emotional intelligence, two dimensions (self-awareness and social awareness) were found to have a small but statistically positive and significant relationship with identifying fake news. Our results align with a study by Potenciando et al. (2024), which revealed a positive and beneficial role of self-awareness in recognizing fake news.

In addition, there is convincing evidence indicating that emotional states, along with psychological and personality disorders, significantly influence individuals’ capacity to identify fake news. In this respect, individuals exhibiting elevated traits of psychopathy, impulsivity, and suspicion, as well as those possessing limited analytical reasoning skills, demonstrate a greater propensity to accept false information as accurate (Blanchette & Richards, 2010; Escolà-Gascón et al., 2023; Farhoudinia, 2023; Martel et al., 2020; Nimbi et al., 2023; Taurino et al., 2023). In addition, there exists a paucity of empirical research examining the influence of emotional intelligence on the sharing of news. The sole pertinent investigation pertains to a study conducted in Indonesia (Prastiyo et al., 2023) involving 200 university students, which demonstrated a robust and positive correlation between emotional intelligence and self-control: the higher the emotional intelligence, the greater the self-control in spreading false news.

In the current study, we have elucidated that the sub-dimensions of social awareness, self-management, and self-awareness within the framework of emotional intelligence were significantly correlated yet small with the inclination to share news. Our findings can be interpreted in several ways. Firstly, individuals with high emotional intelligence demonstrate greater sensitivity to the emotions and needs of others (Mikolajczak et al., 2012), which may facilitate their comprehension of news on societal dynamics. Consequently, they may deduce that disseminating credible news can enhance public cognizance and mitigate the proliferation of misinformation. Secondly, individuals with high emotional intelligence typically exhibit superior analytical capabilities (Li et al., 2021), which enables them to differentiate between authentic news and misinformation.

Finally, we indicated a low average for the sharing of news headlines (6.1±4.5, Min=0, Max=20). The analysis of deliberate and accidental sharing of fake news also revealed that the average deliberate sharing of fake news was merely 0.2. Our findings suggest that individuals within a studied population, characterized by a relatively high emotional intelligence (EI) score of 129.11±9.06 (ranging from 67 to 160), tend to exhibit thoughtful and responsible practices when disseminating news.

Considering all factors, emotional intelligence enhances individuals’ effectiveness in social interactions (Lopes et al., 2004). Sharing news can be seen as a way to create dialogue and exchange ideas with others. Individuals with high emotional intelligence may use this opportunity to express their opinions and engage in discussions with others on various topics. On the other hand, cultural and social factors can significantly impact people’s behaviour. In some cultures, sharing news is considered a positive and social behaviour (Marshall et al., 2023). Therefore, people with high emotional intelligence may be influenced by this social environment and view sharing news as a means to strengthen social connections and foster a sense of belonging within society.

Besides these factors, the type of news can also significantly influence this relationship. For example, people with high emotional intelligence may be more inclined to share positive or educational news. Thus, considering these points, examining the different dimensions of emotional intelligence and its effect on news-related behaviour more thoroughly in future research seems necessary.

Future research should focus more on how emotions, and perhaps mood states in a broader sense, affect how people deal with news, especially fake news. In general, research in this field is necessary and helpful in establishing effective educational and preventive programs and measures for specific populations.

To the best of our knowledge, few studies (Arin et al., 2023) on this issue have investigated whether the sharing of fake news is done intentionally or unintentionally. The importance of this finding lies in the fact that the sharing of fake news is often unintentional, as people share it believing the news to be accurate. Therefore, enhancing citizens’ ability to recognize fake news can be a significant obstacle to the spread of such misinformation. However, if the sharing of fake news is intentional, improving citizens’ ability to detect fake news will not help, and different approaches may be needed to overcome the social divide. The present study found that sharing fake news is mostly accidental, with a smaller portion being deliberate. Consequently, it can be concluded that in the examined community, implementing methods and programmes to enhance the emotional intelligence of its members can lead to more accurate detection and identification of fake news, thereby helping to prevent its dissemination.

First, the typical limitations associated with survey research are also relevant to our study. Respondents might misinterpret the questions and provide untruthful responses, and a survey may fail to reflect their emotional reactions to the questions posed. Therefore, we do not assert that the findings indicate causation. However, our results offer valuable insights into fake news detection and sharing behaviour, providing policymakers with timely information to reduce the spread of misinformation.

The second limitation pertains to the generalizability of the results and the sample used. Although the sample size was adequate for this type of research, the majority of participants were women, academics, and residents of metropolitan areas. These factors may influence the results and moderate the relationship between fake news detection and the attributes examined.

This small-scale exploratory study examined the connections among fake news detection, news sharing behaviour, demographic characteristics, and emotional intelligence (EI). The findings revealed that emotional intelligence plays a significant role in enhancing the capacity to identify fake news and share news articles. Additionally, the unintentional nature of sharing fake news was noted, suggesting that the introduction of supportive and educational programs could help individuals improve their ability to recognize and mitigate the dissemination of false information.

We appreciate the support of Mr. Mostafa Hassan Nejad and the Clinical Research Development Center at Imam Hossein Educational Hospital, for this study.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

The authors reported no potential conflict of interest.