Relativisation in Early Modern Urban Vernaculars: New Evidence from Oxford and Durham Witness Depositions

Abstract

This paper explores regional and temporal variations in the use of relative pronouns in witness depositions from Early Modern English. Specifically, it traces the development of relativisation patterns within the context of the diffusion of supralocal forms and the adoption of standard forms. Given that a relatively uniform written language variety did not emerge from a single location or at a specific time, the role of multiple regional centres is considered. This study examines the use of relative pronouns in two distinct regions: Oxford (representing the Eastern Southwest dialect) and Durham (representing the Northern dialect). It compares the distribution of wh-forms, that, and zero in depositions across three time periods, from the latter half of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century. The study also investigates how restrictiveness, antecedent animacy, and grammatical roles influenced the choice of relative pronoun. Analysis of the Oxford and Durham corpora shows that that was used mainly in restrictive clauses, while wh-forms appeared more frequently in non-restrictive contexts. A gradual ‘dehumanisation’ of which was observed, with an increasing association with non-personal referents, while who, whom, and whose were used for personal references. Although both regions followed similar paths in adopting standard forms, Oxford retained regional features for a longer period. This study highlights the importance of regional centres in the development of standard written English and underscores the need for further research on regional language variations.