Apologies, Remorse, and Amends: Empirical Legal Studies Across Domains and Disciplines
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.62355/ejels.19207Keywords:
apology, accountability, responsibility, remedies, empirical methodsAbstract
The role of apologies in law is offered as an example of a topic that cuts across legal fields, and one that is quintessentially interdisciplinary. Because apologies are an often-desired response in the wake of a wrongful act, they can be significant in many legal settings. Apologies or the lack thereof affect attributions of responsibility and blame, provide information, and alter relationships. Apologies play a role in motivating or forestalling legal action, shape settlement in civilcases, influence punishment in criminal cases, provide alternate or complementary means of accountability, and impact relations among parties to conflict from the interpersonal to the geopolitical. An understanding of apologies is enriched by research conducted by legal scholars, sociologists and psychologists, economists and political scientists, historians and linguists, and criminologists, using methods drawn from each of these fields. This range of empirical research is necessary to successfully develop a better understanding of the desire for, effects of, and limits of apologies across varied legal contexts and the implications for client counseling and legal strategy, for legal reform and systems design, for political decision making, and for procedural, restorative, and transitional justice.
References
Adams, Gabrielle S., and M. Ena Inesi. “Impediments to Forgiveness: Victim and Transgressor Attributions of Intent and Guilt.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 111, no. 6 (2016): 866–81. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000070. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000070
Adams, Megan A, Joseph B Elmunzer, and James M Scheiman. “Effect of a Health System’s Medical Error Disclosure Program on Gastroenterology-Related Claims Rates and Costs.” American Journal of Gastroenterology 109, no. 4 (April 2014): 460–64. https://doi.org/10.1038/ajg.2013.375. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ajg.2013.375
Alexander, Charlotte. “Sorry (Not Sorry): Decoding #MeToo Defenses.” Texas Law Review 99, no. 2 (2020): 341–88. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3550207. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3550207
Bennett, Mark, and Christopher Dewberry. “‘I’ve Said I’m Sorry, Haven’t I?’ A Study of the Identity Implications and Constraints That Apologies Create for Their Recipients.” Current Psychology 13, no. 1 (March 1, 1994): 10–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686855. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686855
Benton, Mark. “Communicating Reform: Testing an Apology for Police History as a Supplement to a Policy Communication.” The American Review of Public Administration 52, no. 1 (January 1, 2022): 46–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/02750740211048887. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/02750740211048887
Berryessa, Colleen M. “Modeling ‘Remorse Bias’ in Probation Narratives: Examining Social Cognition and Judgments of Implicit Violence during Sentencing.” Journal of Social Issues 78, no. 2 (2022): 452–82. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12508. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12508
Bibas, Stephanos, and Richard A. Bierschbach. “Integrating Remorse and Apology into Criminal Procedure.” Yale Law Journal, no. 1 (2005 2004): 85–148. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/4135717
Blatz, Craig W, Karina Schumann, and Michael Ross. “Government Apologies for Historical Injustices.” Political Psychology 30 (2009): 219–31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00689.x
Boothman, Richard, Amy Blackwell, Darrell Campbell, Elaine Commiskey, and Susan Anderson. “A Better Approach to Medical Malpractice Claims? The University of Michigan Experience.” Journal of Health & Life Sciences Law 2 (February 1, 2009): 125–59.
Bottom, William P., Kevin Gibson, Steven E. Daniels, and J. Keith Murnighan. “When Talk Is Not Cheap: Substantive Penance and Expressions of Intent in Rebuilding Cooperation.” Organization Science 13, no. 5 (October 2002): 497–513. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.13.5.497.7816. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.13.5.497.7816
Carlson, Bronwyn. “National Sorry Day is a Day to Commemorate Those Taken. But ‘Sorry’ is Not Enough – We Need Action.” The Conversation (May 25, 2022). https://theconversation.com/national-sorry-day-is-a-day-to-commemorate-those-taken-but-sorry-is-not-enough-we-need-action-183618
Carroll, Rory. (2000, March 13). Pope says sorry for sins of church. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/mar/13/catholicism.religion.
Carroll, Robyn. “Apologies as a Legal Remedy.” Sydney Law Review, no. 2 (2013): 317–48.
Choi, Jung Jin, and Margaret Severson. “‘What! What Kind of Apology Is This?’: The Nature of Apology in Victim Offender Mediation.” Children and Youth Services Review 31, no. 7 (July 1, 2009): 813–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.03.003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.03.003
Cohen, Jonathan R. “Advising Clients to Apologize.” Southern California Law Review 72 (1999): 1009-1069.
Cohen, Jonathan R. “Legislating Apology: The Pros and Cons.” University of Cincinnati Law Review, no. 3 (2002 2001): 819–72. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.283213
Darby, Bruce, and Barry R. Schlenker. “Children’s Reaction to Apologies.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43 (October 1, 1982): 742–53. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.43.4.742. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.43.4.742
David, Roman. “What We Know About Transitional Justice: Survey and Experimental Evidence: What We Know About Transitional Justice.” Political Psychology 38 (February 2017): 151–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12395. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12395
Davis, James R., and Gregg J. Gold. “An Examination of Emotional Empathy, Attributions of Stability, and the Link between Perceived Remorse and Forgiveness.” Personality and Individual Differences 50, no. 3 (February 2011): 392–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.10.031. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.10.031
De Cremer, David, Madan M. Pillutla, and Chris Reinders Folmer. “How Important Is an Apology to You?: Forecasting Errors in Evaluating the Value of Apologies.” Psychological Science 22, no. 1 (January 1, 2011): 45–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610391101. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610391101
Dhami, Mandeep K. “Apology in Victim–Offender Mediation.” Contemporary Justice Review 19, no. 1 (January 2, 2016): 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/10282580.2015.1101686. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10282580.2015.1101686
Dhami, Mandeep K. “Offer and Acceptance of Apology in Victim-Offender Mediation.” Critical Criminology 20, no. 1 (March 2012): 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-011-9149-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-011-9149-5
DiFonzo, Nicholas, Anthony Alongi, and Paul Wiele. “Apology, Restitution, and Forgiveness After Psychological Contract Breach.” Journal of Business Ethics (August 3, 2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-3984-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-3984-1
“Dutch PM ‘Shed a Tear’ When Apologizing for Unjust Halting of Childcare Allowance.” NL Times (January 21, 2020). https://nltimes.nl/2020/01/21/dutch-pm-shed-tear-apologizing-unjust-halting-childcare-allowance
Eisenberg, Theodore, Stephen Garvey, and Martin Wells. “But Was He Sorry? The Role of Remorse in Capital Sentencing.” Cornell Law Review 83 (January 1, 1997).
Etienne, Margareth, and Jennifer Robbennolt. “Apologies and Plea Bargaining.” Marquette Law Review 91, no. 1 (January 1, 2007): 295.
Farmington Police Department (2023, May 16). Chief Hebbe’s statement on officer involved shooting dated April 5, 2023. https://www.facebook.com/FarmingtonPoliceDepartmentNM/videos/215810557724922
Friele, Roland, and Emmy M Sluijs. “Patient Expectations of Fair Complaint Handling in Hospitals: Empirical Data.” BMC Health Services Research 6 (February 1, 2006): 106. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-6-106. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-6-106
Gallagher, Thomas H., Jane M. Garbutt, Amy D. Waterman, David R. Flum, Eric B. Larson, Brian M. Waterman, W. Claiborne Dunagan, Victoria J. Fraser, and Wendy Levinson. “Choosing Your Words Carefully: How Physicians Would Disclose Harmful Medical Errors to Patients.” Archives of Internal Medicine 166, no. 15 (August 14, 2006): 1585–93. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.15.1585. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.15.1585
Gallagher, Thomas H., Michelle M. Mello, William M. Sage, Sigall K. Bell, Timothy B. McDonald, and Eric J. Thomas. “Can Communication-And-Resolution Programs Achieve Their Potential? Five Key Questions.” Health Affairs 37, no. 11 (November 2018): 1845–52. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2018.0727. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2018.0727
Gallagher, Thomas H, Amy D Waterman, Alison G Ebers, Victoria J Fraser, and Wendy Levinson. “Patients’ and Physicians’ Attitudes Regarding the Disclosure of Medical Errors.” Journal of the American Medical Association 289, no. 8 (2003): 1001–7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.289.8.1001
Goffman, Erving. 1971. Relations in Public: Microstudies of the Public Order. Routledge.
Gold, Gregg J., and Bernard Weiner. “Remorse, Confession, Group Identity, and Expectancies About Repeating a Transgression.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 22, no. 4 (December 2000): 291–300. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324834BASP2204_3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/15324830051035992
Haesevoets, Tessa, Chris Reinders Folmer, David De Cremer, and Alain Van Hiel. “Money Isn’t All That Matters: The Use of Financial Compensation and Apologies to Preserve Relationships in the Aftermath of Distributive Harm.” Journal of Economic Psychology 35 (April 1, 2013): 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2013.02.003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2013.02.003
Halperin, Basil, Benjamin Ho, John A List, and Ian Muir. “Toward An Understanding of the Economics of Apologies: Evidence from a Large-Scale Natural Field Experiment.” The Economic Journal 132, no. 641 (January 1, 2022): 273–98. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueab062. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueab062
Hanan, Eve. “Remorse Bias.” Missouri Law Review 83 (2018): 301–57.
Hickson, Gerald B, Wright Clayton, B Githens, and Frank A Sloan. “Factors That Prompted Families to File Medical Malpractice Claims Following Perinatal Injuries.” JAMA 267, no. 10 (1992): 1359–63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.267.10.1359
“Highest Dutch Court Apologises to Childcare Benefits Scandal Victims.” DutchNews.nl (November 19, 2021).
Ho, Benjamin, and Elaine Liu. “Does Sorry Work? The Impact of Apology Laws on Medical Malpractice.” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 43, no. 2 (2011): 141–67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11166-011-9126-0
Ho, Benjamin, and Elaine Liu. “What’s an Apology Worth? Decomposing the Effect of Apologies on Medical Malpractice Payments Using State Apology Laws: What’s an Apology Worth?” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 8 (December 2011): 179–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-1461.2011.01226.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-1461.2011.01226.x
Hobgood, C. “Parental Preferences for Error Disclosure, Reporting, and Legal Action After Medical Error in the Care of Their Children.” PEDIATRICS 116, no. 6 (December 1, 2005): 1276–86. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-0946. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-0946
Hodgins, Holley S., and Elizabeth Liebeskind. “Apology versus Defense: Antecedents and Consequences.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 39, no. 4 (July 1, 2003): 297–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00024-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00024-6
Hollander-Blumoff, Rebecca. “Procedural Justice and Policing: Four New Directions: Corrected Version Justice Reform.” Washington University Journal of Law & Policy, 2016, 67–94.
Jackman, Tom. (2018). Prince George’s County police chief does amazing thing: Provides facts and apologizes for a mistake almost immediately. Washington Post, September 24, 2018.
Jehle, Alayna, Monica K. Miller, Markus Kemmelmeier, and Jonathan Maskaly. “How Voluntariness of Apologies Affects Actual and Hypothetical Victims’ Perceptions of the Offender.” The Journal of Social Psychology 152, no. 6 (November 1, 2012): 727–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2012.697079. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2012.697079
Jeter, Whitney K., and Laura A. Brannon. “‘I’ll Make It Up to You:’ Examining the Effect of Apologies on Forgiveness.” The Journal of Positive Psychology, February 9, 2017, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1291854. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1291854
Judge, Melanie and Dee Smythe (Eds.) 2022. Unsettling apologies: Critical writings on apology from South Africa. Bristol University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781529227956.001.0001
Kachalia, Allen, Samuel R Kaufman, Richard Boothman, Susan Anderson, Kathleen Welch, Sanjay Saint, and Mary A M Rogers. “Liability Claims and Costs Before and After Implementation of a Medical Error Disclosure Program.” Annals of Internal Medicine 53 (2010): 213–22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-153-4-201008170-00002
Kachalia, Allen, Kenneth Sands, Melinda Van Niel, Suzanne Dodson, Stephanie Roche, Victor Novack, Maayan Yitshak-Sade, et al. “Effects Of A Communication-And-Resolution Program On Hospitals’ Malpractice Claims And Costs.” Health Affairs 37, no. 11 (November 2018): 1836–44. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2018.0720. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2018.0720
Kearns, Jill N., and Frank D. Fincham. “Victim and Perpetrator Accounts of Interpersonal Transgressions: Self-Serving or Relationship-Serving Biases?” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31, no. 3 (March 2005): 321–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271594. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271594
Kirchhoff, Johanna, Ulrich Wagner, and Micha Strack. “Apologies: Words of Magic? The Role of Verbal Components, Anger Reduction, and Offence Severity.” Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology 18, no. 2 (2012): 109–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028092. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028092
Kraman, Steve S., and Ginny Hamm. “Risk Management: Extreme Honesty May Be the Best Policy.” Annals of Internal Medicine 131, no. 12 (December 21, 1999): 963–67. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-131-12-199912210-00010. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-131-12-199912210-00010
Lazare, Aaron. 2004. On Apology. Oxford University Press.
LeCraw, Florence R, Daniel Montanera, Joy P Jackson, Janice C Keys, Dale C Hetzler, and Thomas A Mroz. “Changes in Liability Claims, Costs, and Resolution Times Following the Introduction of a Communication-and-Resolution Program in Tennessee.” Journal of Patient Safety and Risk Management 23, no. 1 (February 2018): 13–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356262217751808. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1356262217751808
Leunissen, Joost M., David De Cremer, and Christopher P. Reinders Folmer. “An Instrumental Perspective on Apologizing in Bargaining: The Importance of Forgiveness to Apologize.” Journal of Economic Psychology 33, no. 1 (February 2012): 215–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2011.10.004. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2011.10.004
Leunissen, Joost M., David De Cremer, Christopher P. Reinders Folmer, and Marius van Dijke. “The Apology Mismatch: Asymmetries between Victim’s Need for Apologies and Perpetrator’s Willingness to Apologize.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 49, no. 3 (May 2013): 315–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.12.005. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.12.005
Leunissen, Joost M., David De Cremer, Marius van Dijke, and Christopher P. Reinders Folmer. “Forecasting Errors in the Averseness of Apologizing.” Social Justice Research 27, no. 3 (September 2014): 322–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-014-0216-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-014-0216-4
Lewicki, Roy J., Beth Polin, and Robert B. Lount. “An Exploration of the Structure of Effective Apologies.” Negotiation and Conflict Management Research 9, no. 2 (May 2016): 177–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/ncmr.12073. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ncmr.12073
Mazor, Kathleen M., Steven R. Simon, Robert A. Yood, Brian C. Martinson, Margaret J. Gunter, George W. Reed, and Jerry H. Gurwitz. “Health Plan Members’ Views about Disclosure of Medical Errors.” Annals of Internal Medicine 140, no. 6 (March 16, 2004): 409. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-140-6-200403160-00006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-140-6-200403160-00006
Mazor, Kathleen M., Sarah M. Greene, Douglas Roblin, Celeste A. Lemay, Cassandra L. Firneno, Josephine Calvi, Carolyn D. Prouty, Kathryn Horner, and Thomas H. Gallagher. “More than Words: Patients’ Views on Apology and Disclosure When Things Go Wrong in Cancer Care.” Patient Education and Counseling 90, no. 3 (March 2013): 341–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2011.07.010. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2011.07.010
McDonald, Timothy B, Melinda Van Niel, Heather Gocke, Deanna Tarnow, Martin Hatlie, and Thomas H Gallagher. “Implementing Communication and Resolution Programs: Lessons Learned from the First 200 Hospitals.” Journal of Patient Safety and Risk Management 23, no. 2 (April 2018): 73–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/2516043518763451. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2516043518763451
McMichael, Benjamin J., R. Lawrence Van Horn, and W. Kip Viscusi. “Sorry Is Never Enough: How State Apology Laws Fail to Reduce Medical Malpractice Liability Risk.” Stanford Law Review, no. 2 (2019): 341–410.
Menkel-Meadow, Carrie. “Restorative Justice: What Is It and Does It Work?” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 3, no. 1 (December 2007): 161–87. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.2.081805.110005. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.2.081805.110005
Meyer, Holly, and Peter Smith. (2022, July 24). Church apologies: top leaders say sorry for historical sins. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/pope-francis-canada-religion-sexual-abuse-by-clergy-11563ae36c003eaf46ed68a928b41317
McNamara, Mary. (Aug. 28, 2023). Spain’s soccer chief kissed a World Cup winner. What he’s done since might be worse. Los Angeles Times.
Miller, Dale T. “ Disrespect and the Experience of Injustice.” Annual Review of Psychology, 52: 527-553. https://10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.527. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.527
Murphy, Colleen. 2017. The Conceptual Foundations of Transitional Justice. Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316084229
O’Brien, Thomas C., Tom R. Tyler, and Tracey L. Meares. “Building Popular Legitimacy with Reconciliatory Gestures and Participation: A Community-Level Model of Authority.” Regulation & Governance 14, no. 4 (2020): 821–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/rego.12264. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rego.12264
O’Brien, Thomas C., Tracey L. Meares, and Tom R. Tyler. “Reconciling Police and Communities with Apologies, Acknowledgements, or Both: A Controlled Experiment.” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 687, no. 1 (January 1, 2020): 202–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716220904659. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716220904659
O’Brien, Thomas C., and Tom R. Tyler. “Rebuilding Trust between Police & Communities through Procedural Justice & Reconciliation.” Behavioral Science & Policy 5, no. 1 (2019): 34–50. https://doi.org/10.1353/bsp.2019.0003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/bsp.2019.0003
O’Connor, Erin O’Hara. “Organizational Apologies: BP as a Case Study Rigs, Risk, and Responsibility: Conference on the BP Oil Spill.” Vanderbilt Law Review, no. 6 (2011): 1957–92.
Ohbuchi, Ken-ichi, Masuyo Kameda, and Nariyuki Agarie. “Apology as Aggression Control: Its Role in Mediating Appraisal of and Response to Harm.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56, no. 2 (1989): 219–27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.56.2.219
Okimoto, Tyler G. “Outcomes as Affirmation of Membership Value: Material Compensation as an Administrative Response to Procedural Injustice.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44, no. 5 (September 1, 2008): 1270–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.04.009. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.04.009
Okimoto, Tyler G., Michael Wenzel, and Kyli Hedrick. “Refusing to Apologize Can Have Psychological Benefits (and We Issue No Mea Culpa for This Research Finding).” European Journal of Social Psychology 43, no. 1 (February 2013): 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1901. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1901
Orenstein, Aviva. “Apology Excepted: Incorporating a Feminist Analysis into Evidence Policy Where You Least Expect It Symposium on Evidence Law: Gender and Race in Evidence Policy.” Southwestern University Law Review, no. 2 (1999 1998): 221–80.
Pace, Kristin M., Tomasz A. Fediuk, and Isabel C. Botero. “The Acceptance of Responsibility and Expressions of Regret in Organizational Apologies after a Transgression.” Corporate Communications: An International Journal 15, no. 4 (October 12, 2010): 410–27. https://doi.org/10.1108/13563281011085510. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/13563281011085510
Page, Ruth (2014). Saying “Sorry”: Corporate apologies posted on Twitter. Journal of Pragmatics, 62, 30–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2013.12.003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2013.12.003
Paravicini, Guilia. “Belgium Apologizes for Colonial-Era Abduction of Mixed Race Children.” Reuters (April 4, 2019).
Petrucci, Carrie J. “Apology in the Criminal Justice Setting: Evidence for Including Apology as an Additional Component in the Legal System.” Behavioral Sciences & the Law 20, no. 4 (2002): 337–62. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.495. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.495
Reinders Folmer, Christopher P., Pieter T. M. Desmet, and Willem H. Van Boom. “Beyond Compensation? Examining the Role of Apologies in the Restoration of Victims’ Needs in Simulated Tort Cases.” Law and Human Behavior 43, no. 4 (August 2019): 329–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000335. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000335
Reinders, Folmer Christopher P., Peter Mascini, and Joost M. Leunissen. “Rethinking Apology in Tort Litigation Deficiencies in Comprehensiveness Undermine Remedial Effectiveness.” Review of Law & Economics 15, no. 1 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1515/rle-2018-0042. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/rle-2018-0042
Relis, Tamara. “It’s Not about the Money: A Theory of Misconceptions of Plaintiffs’ Litigation Aims.” University of Pittsburgh Law Review 68, no. 3 (2007 2006): 701–46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5195/lawreview.2007.81
Risen, Jane L., and Thomas Gilovich. “Target and Observer Differences in the Acceptance of Questionable Apologies.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92, no. 3 (2007): 418–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.3.418. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.3.418
Robbennolt, Jennifer K. “Apologies and Legal Settlement: An Empirical Examination.” Michigan Law Review 102, no. 3 (December 2003): 460–516. https://doi.org/10.2307/3595367. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3595367
Robbennolt, Jennifer K. “Apologies and Settlement Levers.” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 3, no. 2 (2006): 333–73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-1461.2006.00072.x
Robbennolt, Jennifer K. “Attorneys, Apologies, and Settlement Negotiation.” Harvard Negotiation Law Review 13 (2008): 349–97.
Robbennolt, Jennifer K. “The Effects of Negotiated and Delegated Apologies in Settlement Negotiation.” Law and Human Behavior 37, no. 2 (2013): 128–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000020
Robbennolt, Jennifer K., Jessica Bregant, and Verity Winship. “We Acknowledge the Court’s Rulings” and Other Terrible Apologies, Verdict, (May 18, 2023). https://verdict.justia.com/2023/05/18/we-acknowledge-the-courts-rulings-and-other-terrible-apologies.
Robbennolt, Jennifer K, and Lesley Wexler. “Service Members’ Reactions to Amends for Lawful Civilian Casualties.” University of Illinois Law Review 2021, no. 2 (2021): 399–457.
Schaart, Eline. “’I Apologize’: Rutte Says Sorry for Netherlands’ Role in Slave Trade.” Politico (December 19, 2022). https://www.politico.eu/article/mark-rutte-slavery-history-i-apologize-says-sorry-for-netherlands-role-in-the-slave-trade-2/
Scher, Steven J., and John M. Darley. “How Effective Are the Things People Say to Apologize? Effects of the Realization of the Apology Speech Act.” Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 26, no. 1 (January 1, 1997): 127–40. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025068306386. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025068306386
Schneider, Howard. “Canada Apologizes for Mistreatment.” Washington Post (January 8, 1998).
Schumann, Karina. “The Psychology of Offering an Apology: Understanding the Barriers to Apologizing and How to Overcome Them.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 27, no. 2 (April 1, 2018): 74–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417741709. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417741709
Schumann, Karina. “Apologies as Signals for Change? Implicit Theories of Personality and Reactions to Apologies during the #MeToo Movement.” PLOS ONE 14, no. 12 (December 23, 2019): e0226047. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226047. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226047
Schumann, Karina, and Anna Dragotta. “Is Moral Redemption Possible? The Effectiveness of Public Apologies for Sexual Misconduct.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 90 (September 1, 2020): 104002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104002. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104002
Smith, Nick. 2008. I Was Wrong: The Meanings of Apologies. Cambridge University Press.
Stillwell, Arlene M., and Roy F. Baumeister. “The Construction of Victim and Perpetrator Memories: Accuracy and Distortion in Role-Based Accounts.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23, no. 11 (November 1, 1997): 1157–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672972311004. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672972311004
Taft, Lee. “Apology Subverted: The Commodification of Apology Essay.” Yale Law Journal, no. 5 (1999): 1135–60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/797485
Tavuchis, Nicholas. 1991. Mea Culpa: A Sociology of Apology and Reconciliation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Thomas, Rebecca L., and Murray G. Millar. “The Impact of Failing to Give an Apology and the Need-for-Cognition on Anger.” Current Psychology 27, no. 2 (June 2008): 126–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-008-9025-y. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-008-9025-y
Tyler, Tom R., Phillip Atiba Goff, and Robert J. MacCoun. “The Impact of Psychological Science on Policing in the United States Procedural Justice, Legitimacy, and Effective Law Enforcement.” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 16, no. 3 (2015): 75–109. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100615617791
Van Dijck, Gijs. “Victim-Oriented Tort Law in Action: An Empirical Examination of Catholic Church Sexual Abuse Cases.” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 15, no. 1 (2018): 126–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/jels.12175. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jels.12175
Vincent, Charles B, Magi Young, and Angela Phillips. “Why Do People Sue Doctors - A Study of Patients and Relatives Taking Legal Action.” The Lancet 347 (June 1994): 1609–13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(94)93062-7
Vines, Prue. “The Power of Apology: Mercy, Forgiveness or Corrective Justice in the Civil Liability Arena.” Public Space: The Journal of Law and Social Justice, 2007, 1–52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5130/psjlsj.v1i1.535
Weiner, Bernard, Sandra Graham, Orli Peter, and Mary Zmuidinas. “Public Confession and Forgiveness.” Journal of Personality 59, no. 2 (June 1991): 281–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1991.tb00777.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1991.tb00777.x
Wexler, Lesley, and Jennifer K. Robbennolt. “Designing Amends for Lawful Civilian Casualties.” Yale Journal of International Law 42 (January 1, 2017): 121–83.
Wexler, Lesley, Jennifer K Robbennolt, and Colleen Murphy. “#MeToo, Time’s Up, and Theories of Justice.” University Of Illinois Law Review 2019, no. 1 (2019): 67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3135442
White, Brent T. “Saving Face: The Benefits of Not Saying I’m Sorry.” Law and Contemporary Problems 72 (2009): 261–69.
Whited, Matthew C., Amanda L. Wheat, and Kevin T. Larkin. “The Influence of Forgiveness and Apology on Cardiovascular Reactivity and Recovery in Response to Mental Stress.” Journal of Behavioral Medicine 33, no. 4 (August 2010): 293–304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-010-9259-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-010-9259-7
Winship, Verity, and Jennifer K Robbennolt. “An Empirical Study of Admissions in SEC Settlements.” Arizona Law Review 60 (2018): 1–66.
Witman, Amy B., Deric M. Park, and Steven B. Hardin. “How Do Patients Want Physicians to Handle Mistakes?: A Survey of Internal Medicine Patients in an Academic Setting.” Archives of Internal Medicine 156, no. 22 (December 9, 1996): 2565–69. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1996.00440210083008. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.156.22.2565
Witvliet, Charlotte, Thomas Ludwig, and David Bauer. “Please Forgive Me: Transgressors’ Emotions and Physiology during Imagery of Seeking Forgiveness and Victim Responses.” Journal of Psychology and Christianity 21 (January 1, 2002): 219–33.
Young, Kathryne M., and Hannah Chimowitz. “How Parole Boards Judge Remorse: Relational Legal Consciousness and the Reproduction of Carceral Logic.” Law & Society Review 56, no. 2 (2022): 237–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12601. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12601
Zaiser, Erica, and Roger Giner-Sorolla. “Saying Sorry: Shifting Obligation after Conciliatory Acts Satisfies Perpetrator Group Members.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 105, no. 4 (2013): 585–604. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033296. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033296
Zechmeister, Jeanne S., Sofia Garcia, Catherine Romero, and Shona N. Vas. “Don’t Apologize Unless You Mean It: A Laboratory Investigation of Forgiveness and Retaliation.” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 23, no. 4 (August 2004): 532–64. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.4.532.40309. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.4.532.40309
Zhong, Rocksheng, Madelon Baranoski, Neal Feigenson, Larry Davidson, Alec Buchanan, and Howard V. Zonana. “So You’re Sorry? The Role of Remorse in Criminal Law.” Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online 42, no. 1 (March 1, 2014): 39–48.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Jennifer K. Robbennolt
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
