Groundbreakers
Human Remains and Radiocarbon Dates from the First Burials in Churchyards on Gotland
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.37718/CSA.2024.3Abstract
This paper presents osteological analyses and radiocarbon dates from human remains found in early churchyards on the Baltic island of Gotland. Graves from the first phases of burial have been discovered beside churches on Gotland on many occasions since the late nineteenth century, usually during preparations for new interments. Previous work has focused on the artefacts found with many of them, which suggest that the early churchyard dead were buried in costume closely resembling that worn in the last phases of the traditional grave fields. These finds have been a key source for research into the chronology and process of the Christianization of Gotland during the late Viking Age and early medieval period. Neglected, however, are the human remains which were sometimes recovered alongside the artefacts, but until now escaped research attention. Here we present analyses of the remains of 26 individuals recovered from Garda churchyard, with smaller numbers from Stånga, Havdhem and Fardhem. The results contribute osteological characterization of the early adopters of churchyard burial, along with new absolute dates for the establishment and use of the new Christian burial sites, and demonstrate that the practice of furnished burial was maintained in churchyards for an extended period.
Downloads
References
Adserias-Garriga, J. & Wilson-Taylor, R. 2019. Skeletal Age Estimation in Adults. In: Adserias-Garriga J. (ed.), Age Estimation: A Multidisciplinary Approach, pp. 55–73. London: Academic Press.
AlQahtani, S.J., Hector, M.P. & Liversidge, H.M. 2010. Brief Communication: The London Atlas of Human Tooth Development and Eruption. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Vol. 142(3), pp. 481–490. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21258.
Andrén, A. 2009. Vem lät bygga kyrkorna på Gotland? Saga och sed. Vol. 2009, pp. 31–59. Andrén, A. 2011. Det medeltida Gotland: En arkeologisk guidebok. Lund: Historiska Media.
Andrén, A. 2013. The Significance of Places: The Christianization of Scandinavia from a Spatial Point of View. World Archaeology. Vol. 45(1), pp. 27–45. doi:10.1080/004382 43.2013.758939.
Andrén, A. 2021. Kommentar till en gotländsk krönika: Gutasagan. In: Andrén, A. & Emdén, C. (eds), Gutasagan: En gotländsk krönika, pp. 21–29. Visby: Gotlands Museum: Fornsalens Förlag.
Arcini, C. 2005. The Vikings Bare Their Filed Teeth. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Vol. 128(4), pp. 727–733. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.20164.
Arcini, C. 2018. The Viking Age: A Time of Many Faces. Oxford: Oxbow books.
Ascough, P., Cook, G. & Dugmore, A. 2005. Methodological Approaches to Determining the Marine Radiocarbon Reservoir Effect. Progress in Physical Geography. Vol. 29(4), pp. 532–547. doi:10.1191/0309133305pp461ra.
ATA = Riksantikvarieämbetets (The National Heritage Board’s archive), Antikvarisk-topografiska arkivet, Stockholm.
ATA + nr = Document kept in Riksantikvarieämbetets (The National Heritage Board’s archive) Antikvarisk-topografiska arkivet, Stockholm.
Audy, F. 2018. Suspended Value: Using Coin Pendants in Viking Age Scandinavia (c. AD 800–1140). Stockholm Studies in Archaeology 74. Stockholm: Department of Archaeology and Classical Studies.
Bartholin, T. 1998. Dendrokronologiens tilforlidelighed. Fornvännen 93(2), pp. 141–142. Berend, N. (ed.). 2007. Christianization and the Rise of Christian Monarchy: Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus’ c. 900–1200. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Blomkvist, N. 2008. Spåren av en svunnen världskonjunktur. In: Petterson, A-N. (ed.), Spillingsskatten: Gotlands vikingatida världshandel, pp. 155–185. Visby: Länsmuseet på Gotland.
Brock, F., Higham, T., Ditchfield, P. & Ramsey, C.B. 2010. Current Pretreatment Methods for Ams Radiocarbon Dating at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (Orau). Radio carbon. Vol. 52(1), pp. 103–112. doi:10.1017/S0033822200045069.
Bronk Ramsey, C., Higham, T., Bowles, A. & Hedges, R. 2004. Improvements to the
Pretreatment of Bone at Oxford. Radiocarbon. Vol. 46(1), pp. 155–163. doi:10.1017/ S0033822200039473.
Brown, T.A., Nelson, D.E., Vogel, J.S., Southon, J.R. 1988. Improved Collagen Extraction by Modified Longin Method. Radiocarbon. Vol. 30(2), pp. 171–177. doi:10.1017/ S0033822200044118.
Bruzek, J. 2002. A Method for Visual Determination of Sex, Using the Human Hip Bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropologyi. Vol. 117(2), pp. 157–168. doi:10.1002/ ajpa.10012.
Bråthen, A. 1995. Dated Wood from Gotland and the Diocese of Skara. Højbjerg: Hikuin.
Bråthen, A. 1998. Kommentar till Thomas Bartholins artikel om dendrokronologins tillförlitlighet. Fornvännen 93(4), pp. 258–259.
Buikstra, J.E. & Ubelaker, D.H. 1994. Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series No. 44. Fayetteville: Arkansas Archeological Survey.
Carlsson, A. 1983. Djurhuvudformiga spännen och gotländsk vikingatid. Stockholm Studies in Archaeology 5. Stockholm: Institutionen för arkeologi och antikens kultur.
Carlsson, A. 1988. Vikingatida ringspännen från Gotland. Stockholm Studies in Archaeology 8. Stockholm: Institutionen för arkeologi och antikens kultur.
Carlsson, A. 1990. Gotland och Visby mellan vikingatid och medeltid. Meta. Vol. 1990(3), pp. 4–15.
Carlsson, D. 1999. Gård, ham och kyrka: En vikingatida kyrkogård i Fröjel. CCCparers 4. Visby: Centre for Baltic Studies, Gotland University College.
Carlsson, D. 2015. Between East and West: Economy and Society on the Island of Gotland. In: Barrett, J.H. & Gibbon, S.J. (eds), Maritime Societies of the Viking and Medieval World, pp. 62–68. Leeds: Manley.
Carlsson, D. 2018. S:t Olofs kyrka vid Akergarn. Gotländskt arkiv. Vol. 90, pp. 44–59.
Carlsson, D. & Bokor, L. (ed.). 2018. Arkeologisk forskningsundersökning Gudings slott, RAÄ Eke 49, Gotland. Rapport Arendus 2018:35.
Cook, G.T., Ascough, P.L. […] Scott, E.M. & Bownes, J.M. 2015. Best Practice Methodology for 14C Calibration of Marine and Mixed Terrestrial/Marine Samples. Quaternary Geochronology. Vol. 27, pp. 164–171. doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2015.02.024.
Duday, H. 1987. Contribution des observations ostéologiques à la chronologie interne des sépultures collectives. In. Duday, H. & Masset C. (eds), Anthropologie physique et archéologie, méthodes d’étude des sépultures, pp. 51–61. Paris: CNRS.
Dupras, T. & Schultz, J. 2013. Taphonomic Bone Staining and Color Changes in Forensic Contexts. In: Pokines, J. & Symes, S.A. (eds), Manual of Forensic Taphonomy, pp. 315–340. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Dury, J.P., Eriksson, G., Fjellström, M., Wallerström, T. & Lidén, K. 2018. Consideration of Freshwater and Multiple Marine Reservoir Effects: Dating of Individuals with Mixed Diets from Northern Sweden. Radiocarbon. Vol. 60(5), pp. 1561–1585. doi:10.1017/ RDC.2018.78.
Eriksson, G. 2004. Part-Time Farmers or Hard-Core Sealers? Västerbjers Studied by Means of Stable Isotope Analysis. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. Vol. 23(2), pp. 135–162. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2003.12.005.
Eriksson, G. & Lidén, K. 2013. Dietary Life Histories in Stone Age Northern Europe. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. Vol. 32(3), pp. 288–302. doi:10.1016/jaa.2012.01.002.
Fazekas, I.G. & Kosa, F. 1978. Forensic Fetal Osteology. Budapest: AkadémiaiKiado. Fuller, B.T., Molleson, T.I., Harris, D.A.,Gilmour, L.T. & Hedges, R.E. 2006. Isotopic Evidence for Breastfeeding and Possible Adult Dietary Differences from Late/Sub– roman Britain. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Vol. 129(1), pp. 45–54. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20244.
Geake, H. 1997. The Use of Grave Goods in Conversion-Period England. British Archaeological Reports British Series 261. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
Gelting, M.H. 2007. Capter 3: The Kingdom of Denmark. In: Berend, N. (ed.), The Christianization and Rise of Christian Monarchy: Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus’ c. 900–1200, pp. 73–120. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gelting, M.H. 2020. The Christianization of Denmark. In: Schjødt, J.P., Lindow, J. & Andrén, A. (eds), The Pre-Christian Religions of the North: History and Structures, Volume IV: The Christianization Process, Bibliography and Index, pp. 1581–1622. Turnhout: Brepols.
Greber, J., Pickard, C., Macaud, S., Sten, S. & Carlsson, D. 2023. King Olaf’s men? Contextualizing Viking Burials at S:t Olofsholm, Gotland, Sweden. International Journal of Osteology. Vol 33, pp. 802–815. doi.org/10.1002/oa.3211
GS = Guta Saga. In: Guta Lag and Guta Saga: The Law and History of the Gotlanders. Edited by Christine Peel. London & New York: Routledge.
Hamerow, H., Leggett, S., Tinguely, C. & Le Roux, P. 2024. Women of the Conversion Period: A Biomolecular Investigation of Mobility in Early Medieval England. Antiquity.
Vol. 98(398), pp. 486–501. doi:10.15184/aqy.2023.203.
Heaton, T.J., Köhler, P., […] Olsen, J. & Skinner, L. 2020. Marine20 – The Marine Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0–55,000 Cal Bp). Radiocarbon. Vol. 62(4), pp. 779– 820. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.68.
Jarman, C.L., Biddle, M., Higham, T. & Bronk Ramsey, C. 2018. The Viking Great Army in England: New Dates from the Repton Charnel. Antiquity. Vol. 92(361), pp. 183–199. doi:10.15184/aqy.2017.196.
Kjellström, A. 2014. Spatial and Temporal Trends in New Cases of Men with Modified Teeth from Sweden (AD 750 to 1100). European Journal of Archaeology. Vol. 17(1), pp. 45–59. doi:10.1179/1461957113Y.0000000047.
Kontopoulos, I., Van De Vijver, K., […] Penkman, K. & Collins, M. J. 2022. Histological and Stable Isotope Analysis of Archeological Bones from St. Rombout’s Cemetery (Mechelen, Belgium): Intrasite, Intraindividual, and Intrabone Variability. International Journal Of Osteoarchaeology. Vol. 32(5), pp. 1142–1156. doi:10.1002/oa.3145.
Kosiba, S.B., Tykot, R.H. & Carlsson, C. 2007. Stable Isotopes as Indicators of Change in the Food Procurement and Food Preference of Viking Age and Early Christian Populations on Gotland (Sweden). Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. Vol. 26(3), pp. 394–411. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2007.02.001.
Kyhlberg, O. 1991. Gotland mellan arkeologi och historia: Om det tidiga Gotland. Stockholm: Institutionen för arkeologi, Stockholms universitet. Lidén, K., & Nelson, E. D. 1994. Stable Carbon Isotopes as Dietary Indicators within the Baltic Area. Fornvännen. Vol. 89(1), pp. 13–21.
Liljeholm, N. 1999. Gravfält kontra kyrkogård – Bysans kontra Rom? Diskussion kring det senvikingatida begravningsskicket på Gotland utifrån gravfälten Stora Hallvards och Silte kyrkas kyrkogård. Fornvännen. Vol. 94(3), pp. 145–160.
Lindkvist, T. 1983. Gotland och sveariket. In: Jansson, I. (ed.), Gutar och vikingar, pp. 281–287. Stockholm: Statens historiska museer.
Ljung, C. 2016. Under runristad häll: Tidigkristna gravmonument i 1000-talets Sverige. Stockholm Studies in Archaeology (67/1). Stockholm: Explicare.
Ljung, C. 2019. Early Christian Grave Monuments and Ecclesiastical Developments in Eleventh-Century Sweden. Medieval Archaeology. Vol. 63(1), pp. 154–190. doi:10.108 0/00766097.2019.1588516.
Ljung, C. 2020. Regional Diversity and Religious Change: Late Viking Age Burial and Commemoration on Öland and Gotland. In: Kitzler Åhfeldt, L., Hedenstierna-Jonson, C., Widerström, P. & Raffield, B. (eds), Relations and Runes, pp. 167–182. Visby: Riksantikvarieämbetet.
Ljung, C. in press. Trondheim, Eleventh-century Christianity and Urban Ecclesiastical Topography. In: Petersén, A. et al. (eds), Creating Sacred Space in Early Christian Norway: Encounters with a Wooden Church in Early Urban Trondheim. Tornhout: Brepols.
Ljung, C. & Wikström, A. 2008. Datering av huvudfaserna. In: Wikström, A. (ed.), På väg mot paradiset: Arkeologisk undersökning i kvarteret Humlegården 3 i Sigtuna 2006, pp. 75–80. Sigtuna: Sigtuna museum.
Ljungkvist, J. 2015. Gravar i en övergångsperiod: De yngsta kammargravarna och brandgravarna i Uppland under 1000- och 1100-talet. META. pp 21–46.
Loe, L., Boyle, A., Webb, H. & Score, D. 2014. ‘Given to the Ground’: A Viking Age Mass Grave on Ridgeway Hill, Weymouth. Dorchester: Dorset Natural History & Archaeological Society.
Lougheed, B.C., Filipsson, H.L. & Snowball, I. 2013. Large Spatial Variations in Coastal 14 C Reservoir Age: A Case Study from the Baltic Sea. Climate of the Past. Vol. 9(3), pp. 1015–1028. doi:10.5194/cp-9-1015-2013.
Mejsholm, L. 2009. Gränsland: Konstruktion av tidig barndom och begravningsritual vid tiden för kristnandet i Skandinavien. Occasional Papers in Archaeology 44. Uppsala: Institutionen för arkeologi och antik historia.
Mejsholm, L. 2017. Kvinnor och män mellan himmel och jord: Segregering av de döda som kyrkopolitisk strategi. In: Tesch, S., Kyhlberg, O. & Weman, G. (eds), Skiftet. Vikingatida sed och kristen tro: Ett mångvetenskapligt perspektiv på kristnandeprocessen i Mälarområdet, pp. 157–184. Skellefteå: Artos.
Molnar, P. 2011. Extramasticatory Dental Wear Reflecting Habitual Behavior and Health in Past Populations. Clinical Oral Investigations. Vol. 15(5), pp. 681–689. doi:10.1007/ s00784-010-0447-1.
Morris, A. G. 1981. Copper Discolouration of Bone and the Incidence of Copper Artefacts with Human Burials in South Africa. The South African Archaeological Bulletin. Vol. 36(133), pp. 36–42. doi:10.2307/3888017.
Murail, P., Bruzek, J., Houët, F. & Cunha, E. 2005. DSP: A Tool for Probabilistic Sex Diagnosis Using Worldwide Variability in Hip-Bone Measurements. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris. Vol. 17(3–4), pp.167–176. doi:10.4000/bmsap.1157. Nordeide, S. W. 2011. The Viking Age as a Period of Religious Transformation: The Christianization of Norway AD 560–1150/1200. Turnhout: Brepols.
Norstein, F.E. 2024. Change and Continuity: Cremation and Inhumation during the Christianisation Period in Scandinavia (c. 800–1200 CE). In: Norstein, F.E. & Selsvold, I. (eds), Archaeological Perspectives on Burial Practices and Societal Change: Death in Transition, pp. 53–67. London and New York: Routledge.
Ortner, D.J. 2003. Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. London: Academic Press.
Parfitt, A.M. 2002. Misconceptions (2): Turnover is Always Higher in Cancellous than in Cortical Bone. Bone. Vol. 30(6), pp. 807–809. doi:10.1016/s8756-3282(02)00735-4.
Partiot, C., Trinkaus, E., Knüsel, C.J. & Villotte, S. 2020. The Cro-Magnon Babies: Morphology and Mortuary Implications of the Cro-Magnon Immature Remains. Journal of Archaeological Science Reports. Vol. 30 102257. doi: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102257.
Peschel E.M., Carlsson, D., Bethard, J. & Beaudry, M.C. 2017. Who resided in Ridanäs? A Study of Mobility on a Viking Age Trading Port in Gotland, Sweden. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. Vol. 13, pp. 175–184. doi: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.03.049
Perrin, M., Ardagna, Y., Richier, A. & Schmitt, A. 2019. Paléopathologie dentaire et époque contemporaine: Le cimetière des Crottes à Marseille, 1784–1905. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris. Vol. 31(3–4), pp. 153–170. doi:10.3166/bmsap2018-0035.
Persson, J. 1976. Kammar. In: Mårtensson, A.W. (ed.), Uppgrävt förflutet för PKbanken i Lund: En investering i arkeologi, pp. 317–332. Lund: Kulturhistoriska museet.
Price, N. 2020. Death Ritual and Mortuary Behaviour. In: Schjødt, J.P., Lindow, J. & Andrén, A. (eds), The Pre-Christian Religions of the North, pp. 853–896. Turnhout: Brepols.
Radon, J. 2019. Filade tänder i ljuset av sina sammanhang: En studie av individer med modifierade tänder i Skandinavien under yngre järnålder. Master thesis in archaeology, Uppsala University.
Reimer, P.J., Austin, W.E., […] Sookdeo, A. & Talamo, S. 2020. The IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0–55 Cal Kbp). Radiocarbon. Vol. 62(4), pp. 725–757. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.41.
Richards, M.P., Mays, S. & Fuller, B.T. 2002. Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Values of Bone and Teeth Reflect Weaning Age at the Medieval Wharram Percy Site, Yorkshire, UK. American Journal of Biological Anthropology. Vol. 119(3), pp. 205–210. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10124.
Rundkvist, M. 2003. Barshalder 2: Studies of Late Iron Age Gotland. Stockholm: Institutionen för arkeologi och antikens kultur.
Schaefer, M., Black, S. & Scheuer, L. 2009. Juvenile Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual. Amsterdam: Academic Press.
Schmitt, A. 2005. Une nouvelle méthode pour estimer l’âge au décès des adultes à partir de la surface sacro-pelvienne iliaque. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris. Vol. 17(1–2), pp. 89–101. doi: 10.4000/bmsap.943.
Sellier, P. 1993. L’estimation de l’âge des f’tus et des enfants morts en période périnatale: Une révision de Fazekas et Kosa (1978) [Communication at the XXIe Colloque du GALF, Bordeaux, 13–15 mai 1993, unpublished].
SHM + nr = Inventory number for finds kept at Statens Historiska Museer (National Historical Museums).
Smith, B.H. 1984. Patterns of Molar Wear in Hunter-Gatherers and Agriculturalists. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Vol. 63(1), pp. 39–56. doi:10.1002/ ajpa.1330630107.
Staecker, J. 1997a. Searching for the Unknown: Gotland’s Churchyards from a Gender and Missionary Perspective. Lund Archaeological Review. Vol. 2(1996), pp. 63–81.
Staecker, J. 1997b. Gotlands kyrkogårdar: Genus, mission och social hierarki. Hikuin. Vol. 24, pp. 201–226.
Staecker, J. 2001. In atrio ecclesiae: Die Bestattungssitte der dörflichen und städtischen Friedhöfe im Norden. In: Auns, M. (ed.), Lübeck Style? – Novgorod Style? Baltic Rim Central Places as Arenas for Cultural Encounters and Urbanisation 1100–1400 AD, pp. 187–258. CCC Papers 5. Riga: Nordik & Centre for Baltic Studies. Strand, L.M., Leggett, S. & Skar, B. 2022. Multi-Isotope Variation Reveals Social Complexity in Viking Age Norway. Iscience. Vol. 25(10) 105225. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2022.105225.
Sundqvist, O. 2024. The Demise of Norse Religion: Dismantling and Defending the Old Order in Viking Age Scandinavia. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter.
Svanberg, F. 2003. Death rituals in south-east Scandinavia AD 800–1000. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia 24. Stockholm, Almqvist & Wiksell International.
Thedéen, S. 2019. Levande levande. In: Ljung, C., Andreasson Sjögren, A., […] Qviström, L. & Zachrisson, T. (eds), Tidens landskap: En vänbok till Anders Andrén, pp. 97–99. Lund: Nordic Academic Press.
Thunmark-Nylén, L. 1980. Om de gotländska kyrkornas ålder. Gotländskt arkiv. Vol. 1980, pp. 17–34.
Thunmark-Nylén, L. 1989. Samfund och tro på religionsskiftets Gotland. In: Andrén, A. (ed.), Medeltidens födelse, pp. 213–231. Nyhamnsläge: Gyllenstiernska Krapperupstift.
Thunmark-Nylén, L. 1991. Vikingatid eller medeltid? Om datering av gotländska gravfynd. Tor. Vol. 23 (1990–1991), pp. 141–202.
Thunmark-Nylén, L. 1995. Churchyard Finds from Gotland (11th–12th centuries). In: Jansson, I. (ed.), Archaeology East and West of the Baltic: Papers from the Second EstoniaSwedish Archaeological Symposium, Sigtuna, May 1991, pp. 161–193. Stockholm: Dept. of Archaeology, University of Stockholm.
Thunmark-Nylén, L. 1995–2006. Die Wikingerzeit Gotlands I–IV. Stockholm: Kungl. Vitterhets historie och antikvitets akad.
Thunmark-Nylén, L. 2000. Die Wikingerzeit Gotlands IV:1–2. Katalog. Stockholm: Kungl.
Vitterhets historie och antikvitets akad.
Thunmark-Nylén, L. 2006. Die Wikingerzeit Gotlands III:1–2. Text. Stockholm: Kungl. Vitterhets historie och antikvitets akad.
Toplak, M. 2018. The Dead as Resources: The Utilization of Death and Burial for the Construction of Social Identity and Legitimacy in Viking Age Scandinavia. Quaestiones Medii Aevi Novae. Vol. 23, pp. 67–93.
Toplak, M. 2022. Resources in Death: The Past in the Late Viking Age Burials in the Cemetery of Havor, Gotland. Fornvännen. Vol. 117(2), pp. 81–106.
Toplak, M. 2023. Zwischen lokalen Traditionen und kultureller Integration: Kontinuität und Wandel in den spätwikingerzeitlichen Bestattungen auf dem Gräberfeld von Havor, Hablingbo sn, aus Gotland. Ressourcenkulturen 21. Tübingen: Tübingen University Press.
Toplak, M. & Kerk, L. 2023. Body Modification on Viking Age Gotland: Filed Teeth and Artificially Modified Skulls as Embodiment of Social Identities. Current Swedish Archaeology. Vol. 31, pp. 79–111. doi: 10.37718/CSA.2023.09.
Trotzig, G. 1969. Gegensätze zwischen Heidentum und Christentum im archäologischen Material des 11. Jahrhunderts auf Gotland. In: Ekdahl, S. (ed.), Kirche und Gesellschaft im Ostseeraum und im Norden vor der Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts, pp. 21–30. Visby: Gotlands Fornsal.
Trotzig, G. 1970. En arkeologisk undersökning i Garda kyrka på Gotland. Fornvännen. Vol. 65, pp. 1–17.
Ubelaker, D. H. 1978. Human Skeletal Remains: Excavation, Analysis, Interpretation. Taraxacum: Washington.
Verna, E., Piercecchi-Marti, M.-D., Chaumoitre, K., Panuel, M. & Adalian, P. 2013. Mise au point sur les caractères discrets du membre inférieur: Définition, épidémiologie, étiologies. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris. Vol. 26, pp. 52–66. doi:10.1007/s13219-013-0090-x.
Villena i Mota, N. 2015. Hiérarchie et fiabilité des liaisons ostéologiques (par symmétrie et par contiguïté articulaire) dans l’étude des sépultures anciennes. British Archaeological Reports International Series 2697. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Voisin, J.-L. 2012. Les caractères discrets des membres supérieurs: Un essai de synthèse des données. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris. Vol. 24, pp. 107–130. doi:10.1007/s13219-011-0050-2.
Waldron, T. 2008. Palaeopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Walper, U., Crubézy, E. & Schultz, M. 2004. Is Cribra Orbitalia Synonymous with Anemia? Analysis and Interpretation of Cranial Pathology in Sudan. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Vol. 123(4), pp. 333–339. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10321.
Wase, D. 1995. De Strelowska kyrkoårtalen. Fornvännen. Vol. 90, pp. 83–93.
Westholm, A. 1926. Gotländska kyrkogårdsfynd från brytningstiden mellan hedendom och kristendom. Fornvännen. Vol. 21, pp. 104–114.
Widerström, P. 2007. Ett gravfält i Spillingsskattens kölvatten. Gotländskt arkiv. Vol. 79, pp. 87–98.
Widerström, P., Bärgman, N. & Randér, G. 2019. Rapport efter en arkeologisk undersökning av RAÄ Sundre 36:1–4 i Sundre socken, Gotlands Region och län. Visby: Gotlands Museum.
White, T.D., Black, M.T. & Folkens, P.A. 2012. Human Osteology. Amsterdam: Academic Press.
Zadora-Rio, É. 2003. The Making of Churchyards and Parish Territories in the EarlyMedieval Landscape of France and England in the 7th–12th Centuries: A Reconsideration. Medieval Archaeology. Vol. 47(1), pp. 1–19. doi:10.1179/med.2003.47.1.1.
Downloads
Additional Files
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Alison Klevnäs, Cecilia Ljung, Astrid Noterman, Emma Brownlee
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors contributing to Current Swedish Archaeology retain copyright of their work, with first publication rights granted to the Swedish Archaeological Society. Read the journal's full Copyright- and Licensing Policy.
